tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-91758241315309514912024-03-23T18:14:30.221+05:30Be Rigid On Your DecisionI dedicate this Blog to all my friends and relatives who find difficult gathering needed knowledge in today’s over crowded World Wide Web. I frequently update valuable inputs on general knowledge, legal and Islam. By Allah’s will, I am also in to construction and repairing of local Mosque and would be thankful if you could also visit my other Blog: www.husainibegummasjid.blogspot.com.Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.comBlogger627125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-65938885303947145612015-06-02T23:50:00.004+05:302015-06-02T23:50:29.108+05:30SC :: Habeas Corpus-Even though the petitioner has not properly framed the petition- issue and decide on merits by HC-Court<div class="_4_j7" style="background-color: white; color: #141823; font-family: helvetica, arial, 'lucida grande', sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">
<span style="line-height: 20px;">SUPREME COURT: </span><strong style="line-height: 20px;">When habeas corpus writ petition is filed, even though the petitioner has not properly framed the petition and not sought appropriate relief, it is expected from the Court to at least go into the issue and deci<span class="text_exposed_show" style="display: inline;">de on merits.</span></strong></div>
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CRIMINAL APPEAL NO.1133 OF 2014 [SLP (CRL) NO. 2531 OF 2014]CHERUKURI MANI VS. THE CHIEF SECRETARY, GOVT. OF ANDHRA PRADESH & ORS.DECIDED ON: 08.05.2014</div>
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Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-80273725257802783442014-09-23T18:11:00.002+05:302014-09-23T18:11:46.770+05:30SUPREME COURT LAID DOWN THE FOLLOWING GUIDELINES IN MATTER OF POLICE ENCOUNTERS:<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Arial; font-size: 10.0pt;"><br />
</span><span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;">"In
light of the above discussion and having regard to the directions issued by the
Bombay High Court, guidelines issued by NHRC, suggestions of the appellant –
PUCL, amicus curiae and the affidavits filed by the Union of India, State
Governments and the Union Territories, we think it appropriate to issue the
following requirements to be followed in the matters of investigating police
encounters in the cases of death as the standard procedure for thorough,
effective and independent investigation:</span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
(1) Whenever the police is in receipt of any intelligence or tip-off regarding
criminal movements or activities pertaining to the commission of grave criminal
offence, it shall be reduced into writing in some form (preferably into case
diary) or in some electronic form. Such recording need not reveal details of
the suspect or the location to which the party is headed. If such intelligence
or tip-off is received by a higher authority, the same may be noted in some
form without revealing details of the suspect or the location.</span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
(2) If pursuant to the tip-off or receipt of any intelligence, as above,
encounter takes place and firearm is used by the police party and as a result
of that, death occurs, an FIR to that effect shall be registered and the same
shall be forwarded to the court under Section 157 of the Code without any
delay. While forwarding the report under Section 157 of the Code, the procedure
prescribed under Section 158 of the Code shall be followed.</span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
(3) An independent investigation into the incident/encounter shall be conducted
by the CID or police team of another police station under the supervision of a
senior officer (at least a level above the head of the police party engaged in
the encounter). The team conducting inquiry/investigation shall, at a minimum,
seek:</span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
(a) To identify the victim; colour photographs of the victim should be taken;<br />
(b) To recover and preserve evidentiary material, including blood-stained
earth, hair, fibers and threads, etc., related to the death;<br />
(c) To identify scene witnesses with complete names, addresses and telephone
numbers and obtain their statements (including the statements of police
personnel involved) concerning the death;<br />
(d) To determine the cause, manner, location (including preparation of rough
sketch of topography of the scene and, if possible, photo/video of the scene
and any physical evidence) and time of death as well as any pattern or practice
that may have brought about the death;<br />
(a) To identify the victim; colour photographs of the victim should be
taken;<br />
(b) To recover and preserve evidentiary material, including blood-stained
earth, hair, fibers and threads, etc., related to the death;<br />
(c) To identify scene witnesses with complete names, addresses and telephone
numbers and obtain their statements (including the statements of police
personnel involved) concerning the death;<br />
(d) To determine the cause, manner, location (including preparation of rough
sketch of topography of the scene and, if possible, photo/video of the scene
and any physical evidence) and time of death as well as any pattern or practice
that may have brought about the death;<br />
(e) It must be ensured that intact fingerprints of deceased are sent for
chemical analysis. Any other fingerprints should be located, developed, lifted
and sent for chemical analysis;<br />
(g) Any evidence of weapons, such as guns, projectiles, bullets and cartridge
cases, should be taken and preserved. Wherever applicable, tests for gunshot
residue and trace metal detection should be performed.<br />
(h) The cause of death should be found out, whether it was natural death,
accidental death, suicide or homicide.</span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
(4) A Magisterial inquiry under Section 176 of the Code must invariably be held
in all cases of death which occur in the course of police firing and a report
thereof must be sent to Judicial Magistrate having jurisdiction under Section
190 of the Code</span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
(5) The involvement of NHRC is not necessary unless there is serious doubt
about independent and impartial investigation. However, the information of the
incident without any delay must be sent to NHRC or the State Human Rights
Commission, as the case may be.</span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
(6) The injured criminal/victim should be provided medical aid and his/her
statement recorded by the Magistrate or Medical Officer with certificate of
fitness.</span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
(7) It should be ensured that there is no delay in sending FIR, diary
entries,panchnamas, sketch, etc., to the concerned Court.</span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
(8) After full investigation into the incident, the report should be sent to
the competent court under Section 173 of the Code. The trial, pursuant to the
chargesheet submitted by the Investigating Officer, must be concluded
expeditiously.</span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
(9) In the event of death, the next of kin of the alleged criminal/victim must
be informed at the earliest.</span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
(10) Six monthly statements of all cases where deaths have occurred in police
firing must be sent to NHRC by DGPs. It must be ensured that the six monthly
statements reach to NHRC by 15th day of January and July, respectively. The
statements may be sent in the following format along with post mortem, inquest
and, wherever available, the inquiry reports:<br />
(i) Date and place of occurrence.<br />
(ii) Police Station, District.<br />
(iii) Circumstances leading to deaths:<br />
(a) Self defence in encounter.<br />
(b) In the course of dispersal of unlawful assembly.<br />
(c) In the course of affecting arrest.<br />
(iv) Brief facts of the incident.<br />
(v) Criminal Case No.<br />
(vi) Investigating Agency.<br />
(vii) Findings of the Magisterial Inquiry/Inquiry by Senior Officers:<br />
(a) disclosing, in particular, names and designation of police officials, if
found responsible for the death; and<br />
(b) whether use of force was justified and action taken was lawful.</span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
(11) If on the conclusion of investigation the materials/evidence having come
on record show that death had occurred by use of firearm amounting to offence
under the IPC, disciplinary action against such officer must be promptly
initiated and he be placed under suspension.</span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
(12) As regards compensation to be granted to the dependants of the victim who
suffered death in a police encounter, the scheme provided under Section 357-A
of the Code must be applied.</span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
(13) The police officer(s) concerned must surrender his/her weapons for
forensic and ballistic analysis, including any other</span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
(14) An intimation about the incident must also be sent to the police officer’s
family and should the family need services of a lawyer / counselling, same must
be offered.</span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
(15) No out-of-turn promotion or instant gallantry rewards shall be bestowed on
the concerned officers soon after the occurrence. It must be ensured at all costs
that such rewards are given/recommended only when the gallantry of the
concerned officers is established beyond doubt.</span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
(16) If the family of the victim finds that the above procedure has not been
followed or there exists a pattern of abuse or lack of independent
investigation or impartiality by any of the functionaries as above mentioned,
it may make a complaint to the Sessions Judge having territorial jurisdiction
over the place of incident. Upon such complaint being made, the concerned
Sessions Judge shall look into the merits of the complaint and address the
grievances raised therein.</span></h2>
<h2 style="background: white; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 7.7pt;">
<span style="color: grey; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br />
32. The above guidelines will also be applicable to grievous injury cases in
police encounter, as far as possible.<br />
CRIMINAL APPEAL NO.1255 OF 1999, DECIDED ON: 23.09.2014<br />
People’s Union for Civil Liberties & Anr. … Appellants<br />
Versus<br />
State of Maharashtra & Ors. … Respondents<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
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Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-53834487352757258492014-08-30T10:28:00.003+05:302014-08-30T10:28:52.387+05:30Government Order--Government of India regarding automatic arrest u/s 498A IPC<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-52263701572756509802014-08-10T21:18:00.001+05:302014-08-10T21:18:51.626+05:30Procedure for Complaint Filed U/Sec 138 N.I.Act<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">
For the Knowledge of common persons who are involved in false cases of Section 138 NiI. Act must know the following Procedure of Law :-</div>
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A).UNDER PROVISIONS OF NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENTS ACT.SEC.138 A LEGAL NOTICE ON BEHALF OF COMPLAINENT IS ISSUED TO THE DEFAULTER WHOSE CHEQUE IS DISHONOURED.IT SHOULD BE ISSUED WITHIN 15 DAYS OF DISHONOUR OF CHEQUE BY REGISTERED POST A.D.ALL FACTS INCLUDING THE NATURE OF TRANSACTION, AMOUNT OF LOAN AND OR ANY OTHER LEGALY ENFORCEABLE DEBT AGAINSTWHICH THE SAID CHEQUE WAS ISSUED AND THE DATE OF DEPOSIT IN BANK AND DATE OFDISHONOUR OF CHEQUE SHOULD BE MENTIONED THE NOTICE.</div>
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B) THE PERSON WHO HAS ISSUED CHEQUE IS DIRECTED TO MAKE THE PAYMENT OF AMOUNT OF DISHONOURED CHEQUE WITHIN 15 DAYS. IN C ASE THE SAID PAYMENT IS MADE WITHIN 15 DAYS OF SERVICE OF NOTICE THEN THE MATTER ENDS.</div>
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C.BUT IN CASE THE SAID PAYMENT IS NOT MADE WITHIN 15 DAYS THEN THE COMPLAINENT HAS TO FILE A CRIMINAL CASE IN THE COURT WITHIN 30 DAYS FROM THE EXPIRY OF NOTICE PERIOD OF 15 DAYS .</div>
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D) THE COURT WILL HEAR ARGUMENTS OF COMPLAINENT/ ADVOCATE FOR COMPLAINENT AND ISSUE PROCESS UNDER SECTION 138 OF N.I.ACT.</div>
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E.)THE SUMMONS ARE SENT AND SERVED THROUGH POLICE STATION WHERE ACCUSED IS RESIDING.</div>
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F)KINDLY NOTE THAT IN N.I.ACT.SEC.138 CASES , POLICE IS LIMITED TO ONLY SERVICE OF SUMMONS AND IN CASE ACCUSED REMAINS ABSENT ON COURT DATE AFTER SERVICE OF SUMMONS THEN ONLY WARRANT IS SENT TO POLICE STATION TO PRODUCE ACCUSED IN COURT.</div>
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G)BUT IT IS OBSERVED IN SEVERAL CASES THAT ACCUSED PERSONS ARE HARASSED BY CONCERNED PERSONS WHO ARE DIRECTED TO SERVE NOTICE/WARRANT.</div>
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H)HENCE IT IS ADVISIBLE THAT ACCUSED SHOULD NOT BE AFRAID OF THIS COURT CASE AND REGULARLY ATTEND COURT DATES SO THAT WARRANT WILL NOT BE ISSUED AND FURTHER UNNECESSARY HARASSMENT WILL BE PREVENTED.</div>
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I) KINDLY NOTE THAT OFFENCE UNDER SECTION 138 OF N.I.ACT IS A BAILABLE OFFENCE AS THE PUNISHMENT PROVIDED FOR SAID OFFENCE IS TWO YEARS.</div>
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J) ACCUSED HAS TO SUBMIT SURETY WITH ALL SURETY DOCUMENTS INCLUDING OWENERSHIP DOCUMENTS OF HOUSE OR LAND OWNED BY SURETY, HIS ADDRESS PROOF INCLUDING RATION CARD, ELECTION IDENTITY CARD, PHOTO AND ADDRESS PROOF OF SURETY AND ACCUSED.ON RECEIVING SUMMONS FROM THE COURT THE ACCUSED AND SURETY SHOULD REMAIN PRESENT IN COURT WITH ALL ABOVEMENTIONED DOCUMENTS AND COURT WILL ACCEPT THE SURETY AND ON SIGNING BONDS BY ACCUSED AND SURETY, THE BAIL WILL BE GRANTED AND ACCUSED WILL BE RELEASED BY COURT.</div>
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K) THEN THE COMPLAINENT WILL FILE THE AFFIDAVIT FOR HIS EVIDENCE WITH ALL ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS IN SUPPORT OF HIS COMPLAINT.THIS IS CALLED EXAM IN CHIEF OF COMPLAINENT.THEN ACCUSED/HIS ADVOCATE WILL CROSS EXAMINE THE COMPLAINENT.</div>
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L) COMPLAINENT CAN SUBMIT ADDITIONAL WITNESSES IN SUPPORT OF COMPLAINT.</div>
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M) THEN ONCE WITNESSES OF COMPLAINENT ARE OVER THEN STATEMENT OF ACCUSED IS RECORDED UNDER SEC.313 OF CRPC .ACCUSED WILL BE ASKED TO GIVE REPLY TO THE QUESTIONS AND ALLEGATIONS AGAINST HIM.</div>
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N)THEN WITNESSES OF ACCUSED TO PROVE HIS INNOCENCE WILL BE PRODUCED AND THE EVIDENCE WILL BE RECORDED BY THE COURT.</div>
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O)LAST STAGE IS OF ARGUMENTS OF ADVOCATE OF COMPLAINENT AND ARGUMENT OF ADVOCATE OF ACCUSED</div>
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P) COURT WILL PASS THE JUDGEMENT.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">
IN CASE ACCUSED IS ACQUITED THEN MATTER ENDS.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">
BUT IN CASE ACCUSED IS CONVICTED THEN IMMEDIATELY ACCUSED SHOULD SUBMIT BAIL APPLICATION AND GIVE SURETY AND PRAY FOR TIME TO APPEAL TO SESSIONS COURT. COURT WILL DIRECT HIM TO DEPOSIT FINE AS PER JUDGEMENT IN THE COURT IMMEDIATELYTHEN HE WILL BE RELEASED.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">
HE SHOULD APPEAL TO SESSIONS COURT WITHIN ONE MONTH FROM THE DATE OF JUDGEMENT OF LOWER COURT.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">
Q) CRIMINAL APPEAL WITH APPLICATION FOR SUSPENSION OF SENTENCE AND FOR BAIL WILL BE GIVEN HEARING BY THE DIST AND SESSIONS COURT AND ON FURNISHING SURETY AS PER DIRECTIONS OF COURT INCLUDING DEPOSIT OF SOME AMOUNT TOWARDS COMPENSATION ORDERED AS PER JUDGEMENT THE ACCUSED WILL BE RELEASED ON BAIL.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">
R).KINDLY NOTE THAT THE DISPUTE MAY GO ON FROM DISTRICT AND SESSIONS COURT TO HIGH COURT AND THEN TO SUPREME COURT.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">
S).KINDLY NOTE THAT THERE IS AMMENDMENT IN THE NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENTS ACT. THE OFFENCE IS MADE COMPOUNDABLE .HENCE IN CASE THE MATTER IS SETTLED BETWEEN THE PARTIES , THEN ON AN APPLICATION IN THE COURT , THE COURT MAY ALLOW TO COMPOUND THE CASE AND CLOSE THE CASE.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">
T) KINDLY NOTE THAT THESE ARE GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR KNOWLEDGE AND REFERENCE OF ALL CONCERNED WHO ARE HARASSED BY THE COMPLAINENTS BY FORCING THE BORROWERS TO ISSUE BLANK SIGNED CHEQUES IN ADVANCE AT THE TIME OF SANCTION OF LOAN.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">
U) SUCH BLANK CHEQUES ARE MISUSED BY THE COMPLAINENTS BY WRITING FALSE AND FICTITIOUS AMOUNTS AND GETING THOSE CHEQUES DISHONOURED.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-26566157987466916782014-08-07T17:45:00.001+05:302014-08-07T17:45:08.273+05:30Dishonour of Cheque cases can be filed only to the Court within whose local jurisdiction, the offence was Committed<div class="_4_j7" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 18px;">
<br /></div>
<div class="mbm _5k3v _5k3y" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 16px; word-wrap: break-word;">
<div class="text_exposed_root text_exposed" id="id_53e36c55072a28d98497491" style="display: inline;">
<span style="font-size: large;">SC : Dis-honour of Cheque cases can be filed only to the Court within whose local jurisdiction, the offence was Committed<br />
<br />
<br />
Dis-honour of Cheque cases can be filed only to the Court within whose local jurisdiction, the offence was Committed; ie, where the cheque is dishonoured by the bank on which it is drawn. Bhaskaran Vs Bal<span class="text_exposed_show" style="display: inline;">an (1999) which allowed Five territorial Jurisdictions overruled </span><br />
<div class="text_exposed_show" style="display: inline;">
<br />
DASHRATH RUPSINGH RATHOD <br />
Versus<br />
STATE OF MAHARASHTRA & ANR. …<br />
<br />
Appeal (crl.) 2287 of 2009<br />
Hon'ble Mr. Justice T.S. THAKUR and<br />
Hon'ble Mr. Justice VIKRAMAJIT SEN, C. NAGAPPAN, </div>
</span></div>
</div>
Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-48356442584439538232013-11-03T21:29:00.000+05:302013-11-03T21:29:01.860+05:30MOHARRAM THE MONTH OF MOURN NOT THE MONTH OF CELEBRATION<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">The</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><b style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">Mourning of Muharram</b><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">is an important period of mourning in</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"> Islam (</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">Shia Islam), taking place in</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">Muharram which is the first month of
the</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">Islamic calendar. It is also
called the</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><b style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">Remembrance of Muharram</b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">.
Many of the events associated with the remembrance take place in congregation
halls known as</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><i style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">Hussainia</i><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">.</span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">The
event marks the anniversary of the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Battle
of Karbala<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>when Imam Hussain Ibn
Ali (as), the grandson of the Islamic prophet<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Muhammad,
and a Shia Imam, was killed by the forces of the second<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Umayyad caliph<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Yazid (L). The event is marked by
arranging 'majalis' (gatherings) to review Islamic teachings and to commemorate
Imam Hussain's sacrifice. The mourning reaches its climax on the tenth day,
known as<span class="apple-converted-space"> Ashura</span>, on which the
forces of Yazid killed the 72 individuals who fought, including Imam Hussain,
his family and supporters. The women and children left living were made
prisoners and transported to Yazid's court in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Damascus</st1:place></st1:city>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #ff6600; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Meaning
of Term Azadari<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">The
words<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Azadari</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>which mean mourning and lamentation;
and Majalis-e Aza have been exclusively used in connection with the remembrance
ceremonies for the martyrdom of Imam Hussain. Majalis-e Aza, also known as
Aza-e-Hussain, includes mourning congregations, lamentations, matam and all
such actions which express the emotions of grief and above all, repulsion
against what<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Yazid<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>stood for.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">The
term majalis has both a grammatical meaning and a meaning which relates to
Aza-e-Hussain. In its technical sense, a majalis is a meeting, a session or a
gathering.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #ff6600; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Source:
How Azadari Started <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">According
to Shia sources, The Azadari of Muharram was started by the family of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Muhammad<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Ahl-ul-Bayt)
after the death of Muhammad's grandson Hussain ibn Ali (as) at the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Battle of Karbala<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>in 680 AD. Following the battle of <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Karbala</st1:city></st1:place>, Muhammad's
granddaughter<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Zaynab bint Ali and
sister of Hussain, began mourning for the fallen and making speeches against Hussain
ibn Ali's opponents:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Ibn Ziyad<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and Yazid. News of Hussain ibn Ali's
death was also spread by Imam<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Zain-ul-Abideen,
who succeeded Hussain ibn Ali (as) as the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Shia
Imam, via sermons and speeches throughout <st1:country-region w:st="on">Iraq</st1:country-region>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><st1:country-region w:st="on">Syria</st1:country-region><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and <st1:place w:st="on">Hejaz</st1:place>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">Zainab
and Zain-ul-Abideen informed the people that Yazid had martyred Imam Hussain
and seventy-two of his companions including his six month old son<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Ali Asghar, and that their women and
children were taken as prisoners to<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Syria.
When word of mourning reached Yazid he decided to release the captive women and
children from the prison in <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Damascus</st1:place></st1:city>,
out of fear of public revolt against his rule. He sent for Zain-ul-Abideen,
informed him of the impending release and asked if he wished for anything
further. Zain-ul-Abideen said he would consult with Zainab. She asked Yazid to
provide a place where the people could mourn for Imam Hussain and others of
Muhammad's household. A house was provided, and here Zaynab binte Ali held the
first Majlis-e Aza of Hussain and started the Mourning of Muharram.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #ff6600; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Event
which leads to the Tragedy of Karbala<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt;">Muawiyah died on<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Rajab<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>22, 60 AH (680 CE). In violation of
Islamic tradition and his own written agreement with Hasan ibn Ali, Muawiyah appointed
his son Yazid as his successor, converting the </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">caliphate
into a dynasty. Few notables of the Islamic community were crucial to lending
some</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">legitimacy to this conversion of the caliphate into a
dynasty<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>even people like Said ibn
Uthman<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Ahnaf ibn Qais<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>denounced his caliphate. Hussein ibn
Ali was the most significant threat to this dynastic rule, since he was the
only living grandson of the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Islamic
prophet Muhammad. <b>Yazid instructed his Governor Walid in <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Medina</st1:place></st1:city> to force Hussain ibn Ali to pledge
allegiance to Yazid.</b> <b>Hussein refused it and uttered his famous words
that "Anyone akin to me will never accept anyone akin to Yazid as a
ruler."</b> Hussein departed <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Medina</st1:place></st1:city>
on Rajab 28, 60 AH (680 CE), two days after Walid's attempt to force him to
submit to Yazid rule. He stayed in <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Mecca</st1:place></st1:city>
from the beginnings of the month of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Sha'aban<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and all of the months of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Ramadan,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Shawwal, as well as<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Dhu al-Qi'dah.</span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">It is
mainly during his stay in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Mecca</st1:city></st1:place>
that he received many letters from<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Kufa<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>assuring him their support and asking
him to come over there and guide them. He answered their calls and sent<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Muslim ibn Aqeel, his cousin, to Kufa
as his representative in an attempt to consider the exact situation and public
opinion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt;">Hussain's representative to
Kufa, Muslim ibn Aqeel was welcomed by the people of Kufa, and most of them
swore allegiance to him. After this initial observation, Muslim ibn Aqeel wrote
to Hussein ibn Ali that the situation in Kufa was favorable. However, after the
arrival of the new Governor of Kufa, Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad, the scenario
changed. Muslim ibn Aqeel and his host,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Hani
ibn Urwa, were executed on<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Dhu
al-Hijjah<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>9, 60AH (September 10,
680 CE) without any real resistance of the people. This shifted the loyalties
of the people of Kufa, in favor of Yazid and against Hussain ibn Ali Hussein
ibn Ali also discovered that Yazid had appointed `Amr ibn Sa`ad as the head of
an army, ordering him to take charge of the </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">pilgrimage
caravans and to kill al Hussain ibn Ali wherever he could find him during</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Hajj,</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">and hence decided to leave Mecca on
8th Dhu al-Hijjah 60 AH (12 September 680 AD), just a day before Hajj and was
contented with Umrah, due to his concern about potential violation of the
sanctity of the</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Kaaba.</span>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">He
delivered a famous sermon at the Kaaba highlighting his reasons to leave, that
he didn't want the sanctity of the Kaaba to be violated, since his opponents
had crossed any norm of decency and were willing to violate all tenets of
Islam.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">When
Hussein ibn Ali was making his mind to leave for Kufa, `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas
and Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr held a meeting with him and advised him not to move
to Iraq, or, if he was determined to move, not to take women and children with
him in this dangerous journey. Hussain ibn Ali, however, had resolved to go
ahead with his plan. He gave a speech to people the day before his departure
and said:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">"... <b>The
death is a certainty for mankind, just like the trace of necklace on the neck
of young girls. And I am enamored of my ancestors like eagerness of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Jacob<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>to<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Joseph<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>... Everyone, who is going to devote
his blood for our sake and is prepared to meet<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Allah, must depart with us..." <o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">On their way to
Kufa, the small caravan received the news of the execution of Muslim ibn Aqeel
and the indifference of the people of Kufa.</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Instead of turning back, Hussain
decided to continue the journey and sent</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Qays ibn Musahir Al Saidawi</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">as
messenger to talk to the nobles of Kufa. The messenger was captured in the
vicinity of Kufa but managed to tear the letter to pieces to hide names of its
recipients. Just like Muslim ibn Aqeel, Qays ibn Musahir Al Saidawi was
executed.</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><div>
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Reference:
Wikipedia…..<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Regards,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Haider Ajaz
(Advocate)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-67266320747468714482013-07-21T00:28:00.000+05:302013-07-21T00:28:12.877+05:30WILL<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Lucida Grande', Verdana, 'Lucida Sans Regular', 'Lucida Sans Unicode', Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12.727272033691406px; line-height: 18.99147605895996px; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><strong>Introduction</strong></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Will is a legal declaration of the intention of a testator through testamentary instrument with respect to his property, which he desires to be carried into effect after his death. It includes codicil and every document in writing making a voluntary posthumous disposition of property. A Will is ambulatory which may be amended or revoked during the lifetime of the testator of the Will.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The Andhra Pradesh High Court held that contents of the Will must indicate that it is intended to come into effect after death of testator and that it is revocable at any time prior to his death and a document cannot be treated as a Will by a mere reading of the heading of it; [Mandakini Naik v G.K. Naik, 2004 (3) ALT 829 (AP HC)].</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">A legacy through the Will lapses where the legatee dies before the testator. For instance, A makes a bequest of certain property in favour of B. However, B dies before A. The bequest, then, cannot naturally take effect and the legacy is said to have lapsed.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">A legatee is liable to the creditors. He is liable to refund the legacy that he has received, irrespective of whether the assets of the testator’s estate are sufficient or not at the time of death of the testator to pay both debts and the legacies, as well as irrespective of whether the payment of legacy by the executor is voluntary or not.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">A great weight is given to the wordings of a Will. A full effect must be given which is main part of operative portion of a Will in the light of declared wish of the testator as well as other provision of the Will. The court in any way has to interpret the words in their both ordinary and grammatical sense and simultaneously to give weight if there is absurdity or inconsistency. Hence, the whole of words should be taken together without any surmise in the light of the intention of testator. Where the maker includes additional words or phrases then it shall mean additional meaning. In order to ascertain the very material purpose of the Will, the court has to go through each and every word used by the testator in a Will.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><strong>Necessity</strong></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Most of the people would like to dispose of their property according to their own wishes through a Will. A Will after death of person, reduces the confusion of sharing property amongst the family members and relatives.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">In case a person dies without making a Will, he is said to have died intestate. His property shall be inherited to his legal heirs in accordance with the personal law applicable to him i.e. The Hindu Succession Act, 1956, The Indian Succession Act, 1925, un-codified law of Muslims, Parsis etc.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><strong>Types of Wills:</strong></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><strong>1.<span new="" times=""> </span>Privileged and unprivileged Wills: </strong>Wills executed according to section 63 of the Indian Succession Act, 1925 are called unprivileged Wills and Wills executed according to section 66 of the Indian Succession Act, 1925 by a soldier or airman or mariner employed in an expedition or engaged in actual warfare are called privileged Wills.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><strong>2.<span new="" times=""> </span>Conditional or contingent Wills:</strong> A will may be expressed to take effect only in the event of the happening of some contingency or condition, and if the contingency does not happen or the condition fails, the Will is not legally enforceable. A conditional will is void if the condition imposed is unlawful.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><strong>3.<span new="" times=""> </span>Joint Wills: </strong>A joint Will is a testamentary instrument whereby two or more persons agree to make a conjoint Will. Where a Will is joint, and is intended to take effect after the death of both, it will not be enforceable during the lifetime of either. Joint Wills are revocable at anytime by either of the testators during their joint lives, or after death of one, by the survivor.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">A Will executed by two or more testators as a single document duly executed by each testator disposing of his separate properties or his joint properties is not a single Will. It operates on the death of each and is in effect for two or more Wills, on the death of each testator, the legatee would become entitled to the properties of the testator who dies.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><strong>4. Mutual Wills:</strong> A Will is mutual when two testators confer upon each other reciprocal benefits by either of them constituting the other his legatee. But when the legatees are distinct from the testators, there can be no position for Mutual Wills.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><strong>5.<span new="" times=""> </span>Duplicate Wills:</strong> A testator, for the sake of safety, may make a Will in duplicate, one to be kept by him and the other to be deposited in the safe custody with a bank or executor or trustee. If the testator mutilates or destroys the one which is in his custody it is revocation of both.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><strong>6.<span new="" times=""> </span>Concurrent Wills: </strong>Generally, a man should leave only one Will at the time of his death. However, for the sake of convenience a testator may dispose of some properties in one country by one Will and the other properties in another country by a separate Will.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><strong>7.<span new="" times=""> </span>Sham Wills:</strong> If a document is deliberately executed with all due formalities purporting to be a Will, it will still be nullity if it can be shown that the testator did not intend it to have any testamentary operation, but was to have only some collateral object. One thing must be borne in mind that the intention to make the Will is essential for the validity of the Will.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><strong>8.<span new="" times=""> </span>Holograph Wills:</strong> Such Wills are written entirely in the handwriting of the testator.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><strong>What can be bequeathed in a Will</strong></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">All properties, movable or immovable of which the testator is the owner and which are transferable can be disposed of by a Will. Property which is not legally transferable cannot be bequeathed. If a person has only a life-interest in a property, he cannot make a Will in respect of it. A Hindu governed by Mitakshara law can bequeath his interest in the joint family property to any person he desires by means of a Will. But a female Hindu, in all cases, is entitled to dispose of her property without any restriction. In case of leasehold property, so long as lease does not expire, the bequest is effective. If the lease expires during the lifetime of a testator, no bequest is made.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The testator has no right to bequeath all the assets to an institution or a trust leaving his family and dependants in poverty and deprivation. The member’s of the testator’s family are entitled to claim maintenance from the estate of the testator.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><strong>Who can make a Will</strong></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">According to section 5 of the Indian Succession Act, 1925 every person of sound mind and not being a minor may dispose of his property by Will.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><strong>Proof and effect of Will</strong></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Probate is a certificate issued by court on the application of the executor appointed by a Will to the effect that the Will is valid. It is also the official evidence of the executor’s right to administer the estate of a deceased person.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Executor is a person to whom the execution of the last Will of a deceased person is, by the testator’s appointment, confided.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Letters of administration is granted when a person who had executed a legally valid Will dies without having named an executor and on application by one of the beneficiaries named in the Will. The procedure for grant of Letters of administration is more or less similar to that for the grant of probate.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">To establish a right of an estate under the Will, a probate or Letters of administration granted by a competent court needs to be attached.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><strong>Execution of wills</strong></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Section 63 of the Indian Succession Act, 1925 provides that every testator other than a soldier or an airman or a mariner employed in an expedition or engaged in actual warfare must execute his Will according to the following rules:</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">He must sign or must affix his mark to the Will, or it must be signed by some other person in his presence and by his direction; and the signature or the mark of the testator, or the signature of the person signing for him, must be so placed that it shall appear that it was intended thereby to give effect to the writing as a Will. It is further provided that the Will must be attested by two or more witnesses, each of whom has seen the testator sign or affix his mark to the Will or has seen some other person sign the Will, in the presence and by the direction of the testator, or has received from the testator a personal acknowledgement of his signature or mark, or of the signature of such other person; and each of such witnesses must sign the Will in the presence of the testator, but it is not necessary that more than one witness should be present at the same time. No particular form of attestation is necessary.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><strong>Applicability of Indian Evidence Act, 1872</strong></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The provisions of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872, apply to Wills as to other documents and the court may draw the presumption under it in deciding whether the Will has been properly attested or not.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><strong>The Executor</strong></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The executor is the most important person in the Will. Executor is defined in the Indian Succession Act, 1925, as a person to whom the execution of the last Will of a deceased person, is by the testator’s appointment confided. An executor is charged with the duty and conferred with the power to carry out the directions contained in the Will. He has to collect and realize the estate of the deceased, pay his debts and distribute the legacies.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The executor shall file the petition for obtaining probate of the Will. The court shall grant probate only to an executor who has been named in the Will.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The executor should not be minor. The executor should be younger than testator in age so that there is greater possibility of his outliving or surviving the testator.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><strong>Administrator</strong></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">In case the deceased has not appointed an executor then the court shall appoint one. Also in case the executor is incapable of or refuses to act or has predeceased the testator or the executor dies after having proved the Will but before administering all the estates of the deceased, the court shall appoint an administrator at the instance of interested person or persons.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><strong>Registration of Will</strong></span></div>
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Registration of a Will is purely an optional matter. It is not compulsory at all. No inference can be drawn by the Court or any authority about the genuineness of a Will on the ground of its non-registration. Nor a Will can be accepted as genuine by courts even though it has been registered.</div>
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Thanks to: </div>
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M Ram Pavan Kumar (Th Lawyers Club India)</div>
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Haider Ajaz</div>
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Advocate</div>
Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-44409213705830795902013-07-20T11:58:00.002+05:302013-07-20T11:58:25.206+05:30Can A Trespasser become Owner of Disputed Property by way of Adverse Possession : Supreme Court, 2011<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">
<b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">CIVIL APPELLATE JURISDICTION</span></b></div>
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<b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">PETITION FOR SPECIAL LEAVE TO APPEAL (CIVIL) NO.</span></b><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">28034/2011</span></b></div>
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<b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">(Arising out of CC 9038/2010)</span></b></div>
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<b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; font-size: medium; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">State of Haryana …Petitioner</span></b></div>
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<b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; font-size: medium; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Versus</span></b></div>
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<b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; font-size: medium; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Mukesh Kumar & Ors. …Respondents</span></b></div>
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<b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; font-size: medium; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">J U D G M E N T</span></b></div>
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<b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; font-size: medium; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Dalveer Bhandari, J.</span></b></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">1. People are often astonished to learn that a trespasser may take the title of a building or land from the true owner in certain conditions and such theft is even authorized by law.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">2. The theory of adverse possession is also perceived by the general public as a dishonest way to obtain title</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">to property. Property right advocates argue that mistakes by landowners or negligence on their part should never transfer their property rights to a wrongdoer, who never paid valuable consideration for such an interest.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">3. The government itself may acquire land by adverse possession. Fairness dictates and commands that if the</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">government can acquire title to private land through adverse possession, it should be able to lose title under</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">the same circumstances.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">4. We have heard the learned counsel for the State of Haryana. We do not deem it appropriate to financially</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">burden the respondents by issuing notice in this Special Leave Petition. A very vital question which arises for</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">consideration in this petition is whether the State, which is in charge of protection of life, liberty and property of the people can be permitted to grab the land and property of its own citizens under the banner of the plea of adverse possession?</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">5. Brief facts, relevant to dispose of this Special Leave Petition are recapitulated as under:</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">6. The State of Haryana had filed a Civil Suit through the Superintendent of Police, Gurgaon, seeking a relief of declaration to the effect that it has acquired the rights of ownership by way of adverse possession over land measuring 8 biswas comprising khewat no. 34, khata no. 56, khasra no. 3673/452 situated in the revenue estate of Hidayatpur Chhavni, Haryana.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">7. The other prayer in the suit was that the sale deed dated 26th March, 1990, mutation no. 3690 dated 22nd November, 1990 as well as judgment and decree dated 19th May, 1992, passed in Civil Suit No. 368 dated 9th March, 1991 are liable to be set aside. As a consequential relief, it was also prayed that the defendants be perpetually restrained from interfering with the peaceful possession of the plaintiff (petitioner herein) over the suit land. For the sake of convenience we are referring the petitioner as the plaintiff and the respondents as defendants.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">8. In the written statement, the defendants raised a number of preliminary objections pertaining to estoppel,</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">cause of action and mis-joinder of necessary parties. It was specifically denied that the plaintiff ever remained in possession of the suit property for the last 55 years. It was submitted that the disputed property was still lying vacant. However, the plaintiff recently occupied it by using force and thereafter have also raised a boundary wall of police line. It was denied in the written statement that the plaintiff acquired right of ownership by way of adverse possession qua property in question. The defendants prayed for dismissal of suit and by way of a counter claim also prayed for a decree for possession qua suit property be passed.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">9. The Trial Court framed the following Issues in the suit.</b><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">1. Whether plaintiffs have become owner of disputed property by way of adverse possession? OPP</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">2. Whether sale deed 26.3.1990 and mutation no. 3690 dated 22.11.90 are null and void as alleged? OPP</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">3. Whether judgment and decree dated 19.05.92 passed in civil suit no. 368 dated 9.3.91 is liable to</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">be set aside alleged? OPP</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">4. Whether the suit of the plaintiff is not maintainable in the present form? OPP</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">5. Whether the plaintiff has no locus-standi to file the present suit? OPP</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">6. Whether the plaintiff has no cause of action to file the present suit? OPP</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">7. Whether the suit of the plaintiff is bad for misjoinder of necessary parties? OPP</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">8. Whether defendants no. 1 to 4 are rightful owners of disputed property on the basis of impugned sale</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">deed dated 23.6.1990 registered on 3.7.1990? OPP</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">9. Whether defendants are entitled for possession of disputed property? OPP</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">10. Relief.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">10. Issue No. 1 which relates to adverse possession and issue No. 4 pertaining to maintainability were decided together. According to the Trial Court, the plaintiff has failed to prove the possession over the disputed property because the plaintiff could not produce any documentary evidence to prove this. On the contrary, revenue records placed on the file shows that the defendants are the owners in possession of disputed property. The Trial Court observed that possession of State, as claimed in the plaint for a continuous period of 55 years, stood falsified by the documents issued by the officials of the State.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">11. The Trial Court also observed that despite claiming adverse possession, there was no pleading qua denial of title of the defendants by the plaintiff, so much so that the specific day when the alleged possession of State allegedly became adverse against the defendants has not been mentioned in order to establish the starting point of limitation could be ascertained.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">12. The Trial Court relied on the judgment of this Court in S.M. Karim v. Mst. Bibi Sakina AIR 1964 SC 1254 wherein this Court has laid down that the adverse possession must be adequate in continuity, in publicity and extent and a plea is required at the least to show when possession becomes adverse. The Court also held that long possession is not necessarily adverse possession.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">13. The Trial Court also relied on a decision of the High Court of Punjab and Haryana in the case of </span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Bhim Singh & Ors. v. Zile Singh & Ors., AIR 2006 P and H 195</b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">, wherein it was stated that no declaration can be sought by a plaintiff with regard to the ownership on the basis of adverse possession.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">14. The Trial Court came to specific conclusion that despite the fact that the possession of the plaintiff over the disputed land is admitted on behalf of defendants, Issue No. 1 stand decided against the plaintiff. It was held that the suit of the plaintiff claiming ownership by way of adverse possession is not maintainable. Consequently, Issue No. 1 was decided against the plaintiff and Trial No. 4 was decided in favour of the defendants.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">15. The Trial Court decided Issue Nos. 2, 3, 5 and 6 together and came to the definite conclusion that the</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">plaintiff failed to prove its possession over the property in question. It was also held that the plaintiff had no locus standi to challenge the validity of the impugned sale deed, mutation as well as the judgment and decree because the plaintiff was neither the owner nor in possession of the property in dispute. Consequently, the plaintiff had no right to say that the impugned sale deed dated 26th March, 1990 was a sham transaction and the suit of mutation dated 22nd November, 1990 and, thereafter, the judgment and decree dated 19th May, 1992 passed in Civil Suit No. 386 dated 9th March, 1991 are liable to be set aside.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">16. The Trial Court came to the conclusion that the plaintiff having no right or title in the suit property has</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">neither locus standi nor cause of action to file the present suit. Issue Nos. 2 and 3 were decided against the plaintiff, whereas, Issue Nos. 5 and 6 were decided in favour of the defendants.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">17. Regarding Issue Nos. 8 and 9, the Trial Court observed that once it is held that defendant Nos. 1 to 4 are owners of the disputed property, which is presently in possession of the plaintiff without any right, they (defendants) are entitled to its possession. Hence, Issue Nos. 8 and 9 were also decided in favour of the defendants.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">18. Issue No. 7 was not pressed and decided against the defendants.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">19. Regarding Issue No. 10 (relief) the Trial Court observed as under:</span><br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="background-color: #f7f7f7; border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); box-shadow: 0px 10px 20px -10px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 22px; margin: 5px auto 15px; padding: 10px; width: 527px;">
“As a sequel to the findings of this<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />court on the issues mentioned above, the<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />suit of the plaintiff stands dismissed,<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />however, counter claim filed by<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />defendants is decreed with costs to the<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />effect that they are entitled to possession<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />of land measuring 8 biswas comprising of<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />khewat no. 34 khata no. 56 khasa no.<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />3673/452 situated in revenue estate of<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />Hidayatpur Chhavni village now the part<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />of known as Patel Nagar, Gurgaon.<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />Decree sheet be drawn accordingly. File<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />be consigned to the record room after due<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />compliance.”</blockquote>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">20. The plaintiff, aggrieved by the judgment of the Trial Court filed an appeal (Civil Appeal No. 33) before the learned Additional District Judge, Gurgaon. Learned Additional District Judge while deciding the appeal, relied on the judgment of the Punjab & Haryana High Court delivered in the case of Food Corporation of India and Another v. Dayal Singh 1991 PLJ 425, wherein it was observed that it does not behove the Government to take the plea of adverse possession against the citizens.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">21. Learned Additional District Judge also relied on other judgments of Punjab & Haryana High Court in the cases of Bhim Singh & Ors. (supra) and Kanak Ram & Ors. v. Chanan Singh & Ors. (2007) 146 PLR 498 wherein it was held that a person in adverse possession of immovable property cannot file a suit for declaration claiming ownership and such a suit was not maintainable.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">22. Before parting with the judgment the learned Additional District Judge observed regarding conduct of the</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">plaintiff that the present suit was filed by State of Haryana by the then Superintendent of Police, Gurgaon on 11th May, 1996. It was also observed by the learned Additional District Judge that the Police department is for the protection of the people and property of the citizens and the police department had unnecessarily dragged the defendants in unnecessary litigation. The appeal was dismissed with exemplary cost of Rs.25,000/-.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">23. Unfortunately, despite serious strictures passed by the Court, the State of Haryana did not learn a lesson and preferred a Second Appeal (RSA No. 3909 of 2008) before the High Court of Punjab and Haryana, Chandigarh against the judgments and decrees of the two courts below.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">24. The High Court, relying on the earlier judgments, observed that the welfare State which was responsible for the protection of life and property of its citizens, was in the present case, itself trying to grab the land/property of the defendants under the garb of plea of adverse possession and hence the action of the plaintiff is deplorable and disgraceful.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">25. Unfortunately, the State of Haryana, is still not satisfied with the three strong judgments by three different</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">forums given against the State and is still quite anxious and keen to grab the property of the defendants in a clandestine manner on the plea of adverse possession.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">26. In a democracy, governed by rule of law, the task of protecting life and property of the citizens is entrusted to the police department of the government. In the instant case, the suit has been filed through the Superintendent of Police, Gurgaon, seeking right of ownership by adverse possession.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">27. The revenue records of the State revealed that the disputed property stood in the name of the defendants. It is unfortunate that the Superintendent of Police, a senior official of the Indian Police Service, made repeated attempts to grab the property of the true owner by filing repeated appeals before different forums claiming right of ownership by way of adverse possession.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">28. The citizens may lose faith in the entire police administration of the country that those responsible for the</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">safety and security of their life and property are on a spree of grabing the properties from the true owners in a clandestine manner.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">29. A very informative and erudite Article was published in Neveda Law Journal Spring 2007 with the</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">title ‘Making Sense Out of Nonsense: A Response to Adverse Possession by Governmental Entities’. The</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Article was written by Andrew Dickal. Historical background of adverse possession was discussed in that</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">article.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-size: medium; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Historical background</span></b><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-size: medium; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">30. The concept of adverse possession was born in England around 1275 and was initially created to allow</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">a person to claim right of “seisin” from his ancestry. Many felt that the original law that relied on “seisin”</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">was difficult to establish, and around 1623 a statue of limitations was put into place that allowed for a person</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">in possession of property for twenty years or more to acquire title to that property. This early English</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">doctrine was designed to prevent legal disputes over property rights that were time consuming and costly.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">The doctrine was also created to prevent the waste of land by forcing owners to monitor their property or</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">suffer the consequence of losing title.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">31. The concept of adverse possession was subsequently adopted in the United States. The doctrine was especially important in early American periods to cure the growing number of title disputes. The American version mirrored the English law, which is illustrated by most States adopting a twenty-year statue of limitations for adverse possession claims. As America has developed to the present date, property rights have become increasingly more important and land has become limited. As a result, the time period to</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">acquire land by adverse possession has been reduced in some States to as little as five years, while in others, it has remained as long as forty years. The United States has also changed the traditional doctrine by preventing the use of adverse possession against property held by a governmental entity.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">32. During the colonial period, prior to the enactment of the Bill of Rights, property was frequently taken by</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">states from private land owners without compensation Initially, undeveloped tracts of land were the most</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">common type of property acquired by the government, as they were sought for the installation of public road.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Under the colonial system it was thought that benefits from the road would, in a newly opened country, always exceed the value of unimproved land.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">33. The doctrine of adverse possession arose in an era where lands were vast particularly in the United States of America and documentation sparse in order to give quietus to the title of the possessor and prevent fanciful claims fromerupting. The concept of adverse possession exits to cure potential or actual defects in real estate titles by putting a statute of limitation on possible litigation over ownership and possession. A landowner could be secure in title to his land; otherwise, long-lost heirs of any former owner, possessor or lien holder of centuries past could come forward with a legal claim on the property. Since independence of our country we have witnessed registered documents of title and more proper, if not perfect, entries of title in the government records. The situation having changed, the statute calls for a change.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">34. In Hemaji Waghaji Jat v. Bhikhabhai Khengarbhai Harijan and Others (2009) 16 SCC 517 (one of us</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Bhandari, J.), this Court had an occasion to examine the English and American law on “adverse possession”. The relevant paras of that judgment (Paras 24 and 26 to 29) are reproduced as under:</span><br />
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24. In a relatively recent case in P.T.<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />Munichikkanna Reddy v. Revamma (2007) 6 SCC<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />59, this Court again had an occasion to deal with<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />the concept of adverse possession in detail. The<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />Court also examined the legal position in various<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />countries particularly in English and American<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />systems. We deem it appropriate to reproduce<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />relevant passages in extenso. The Court dealing<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />with adverse possession in paras 5 and 6 observed<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />as under: (SCC pp. 66-67)<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />“5. Adverse possession in one sense is based<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />on the theory or presumption that the owner<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />has abandoned the property to the adverse<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />possessor on the acquiescence of the owner to<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />the hostile acts and claims of the person in<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />possession. It follows that sound qualities of a<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />typical adverse possession lie in it being open,<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />continuous and hostile. (See Downing v. Bird<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />100 So 2d 57 (Fla 1958), Arkansas<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />Commemorative Commission v. City of<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />Little Rock 227, Ark 1085 : 303 SW 2d 569<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />(1957); Monnot v. Murphy 207 NY 240 : 100<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />NE 742 (1913); City of Rock Springs v.<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />Sturm 39 Wyo 494 : 273 P 908 : 97 ALR 1<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />(1929).)<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />6. Efficacy of adverse possession law in<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />most jurisdictions depends on strong<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />limitation statutes by operation of which right<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />to access the court expires through efflux of<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />time. As against rights of the paper-owner, in<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />the context of adverse possession, there<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />evolves a set of competing rights in favour of<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />the adverse possessor who has, for a long<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />period of time, cared for the land, developed it,<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />as against the owner of the property who has<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />ignored the property. Modern statutes of<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />limitation operate, as a rule, not only to cut off<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />one’s right to bring an action for the recovery<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />of property that has been in the adverse<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />possession of another for a specified time, but<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />1<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />also to vest the possessor with title. The<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />intention of such statutes is not to punish one<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />who neglects to assert rights, but to protect<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />those who have maintained the possession of<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />property for the time specified by the statute<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />under claim of right or colour of title. (See<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />American Jurisprudence, Vol. 3, 2d, p. 81. It is<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />important to keep in mind while studying the<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />American notion of adverse possession,<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />especially in the backdrop of limitation statutes,<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />that the intention to dispossess cannot be given<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />a complete go-by. Simple application of<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />limitation shall not be enough by itself for the<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />success of an adverse possession claim.”</blockquote>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">35. A person pleading adverse possession has no equities in his favour since he is trying to defeat the rights of the true owner. It is for him to clearly plead and establish all facts necessary to establish adverse possession. Though we got this law of adverse possession from the British, it is important to note that these days English Courts are taking a very negative view towards the law of adverse possession. The English law was amended and changed substantially to reflect these changes, particularly in light of the view that property is a human right adopted by the European Commission. This Court in Revamma (supra) observed that to understand the true nature of adverse possession, Fairweather v. St Marylebone Property Co [1962] 2 WLR 1020 : [1962] 2 All ER 288 can be considered where House of Lords referring to Taylor v. Twinberrow [1930] 2 K.B. 16 termed adverse possession as a negative and consequential right effected</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">only because somebody else's positive right to access the court is barred by operation of law. As against the rights of the paper-owner, in the context of adverse possession, there evolves a set of competing rights in favour of the adverse possessor who has, for a long period of time, cared for the land, developed it, as against the owner of the property who has ignored the property.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">36. The right to property is now considered to be not only constitutional or statutory right but also a human right. Human rights have already been considered in realm of individual rights such as right to health, right to livelihood, right to shelter and employment etc. But now human rights are gaining a multi faceted dimension. Right to property is also considered very much a part of the new dimension. Therefore, even claim of adverse possession has to be read in that context.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">37. The changing attitude of the English Courts is quite visible from the judgment of Beaulane Properties Ltd. v. Palmer (2005) 3 WLR 554. The Court here tried to read the human rights position in the context of adverse possession. But what is commendable is that the dimension of human rights have widened so much that now property dispute issues are also being raised within the contours of human rights. With the expanding jurisprudence of the European Courts of Human Rights, the Court has taken an unkind</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">view to the concept of adverse possession.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">38. Paragraphs from 26 to 29 of Hemaji Waghaji Jat (supra) are set out as under:-</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br />
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<b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">26.</b> With the expanding jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights, the Court has<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />taken an unkind view to the concept of adverse possession in the recent judgment of JA Pye<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />(Oxford) Ltd. v. United Kingdom (2005) 49 ERG 90 which concerned the loss of ownership of land by virtue of adverse possession. In the said case, “the applicant company was the registered owner of a plot of 23 hectares of agricultural land. The owners of a property adjacent to the land, Mr and Mrs Graham (the Grahams) occupied the land under a<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />grazing agreement. After a brief exchange of documents in December 1983 a chartered surveyor acting for the applicants wrote to the Grahams noting that the grazing agreement was about to expire and requiring them to vacate the land.” The Grahams continued to use the whole of the disputed land for farming without the permission of the applicants from September 1998 till 1999. In 1997, Mr Graham moved the Local Land Registry against the applicant on the ground that he had obtained title by adverse possession. The Grahams 1 challenged the applicant company’s claims under the Limitation Act, 1980 (the 1980 Act) which provides that a person cannot bring an action to recover any land after the expiration of 12 years of adverse possession by another.<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">27.</b> The judgment was pronounced in JA Pye (Oxford) Ltd. v. Graham (2000) 3 WLR 242 : 2000 Ch 676. The Court held in favour of the Grahams but went on to observe the irony in law of adverse possession. The court observed that the law which provides to oust an owner on the basis of inaction of 12 years is “illogical and disproportionate”. The effect of such law would “seem draconian to the owner” and “a windfall for the squatter”. The court expressed its astonishment on the prevalent law that ousting an owner for not taking action within limitation is illogical. The applicant company aggrieved by the said judgment filed an appeal and the Court of Appeal reversed the High Court decision. The Grahams then appealed to the House of Lords, which, allowed their appeal and restored the order of the High Court.<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">28.</b> The House of Lords in JA Pye (Oxford) Ltd. v. Graham (2003) 1 AC 419 : (2002) 3 WLR 221 : (2002) 3 All ER 865 (HL), observed that the Grahams had possession of the land in the ordinary sense of the word, and, therefore, the applicant company had been dispossessed of it within the meaning of the Limitation Act of 1980.<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">29.</b> We deem it proper to reproduce the relevant portion of the judgment in P.T. Munichikkanna Reddy v. Revamma (2007) 6 SCC 59: (SCC p. 79, paras 51-52) “51. Thereafter the applicants moved the European Commission of Human Rights (ECHR) alleging that the United Kingdom law on adverse possession, by which they lost land 2 to a neighbour, operated in violation of Article 1 of Protocol 1 to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (‘the Convention’).<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />52. It was contended by the applicants that they had been deprived of their land by the peration of the domestic law on adverse possession which is in contravention with Article 1 of Protocol 1 to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (‘the Convention’), which reads as under: ‘Every natural or legal person is entitled to the peaceful enjoyment of his possession. No one shall be deprived of his possession except in the public interest and subject to the conditions provided for by law and by the general principles of<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />international law. The preceding provisions shall not, however, in any way impair the right of a<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />State to enforce such laws as it deems necessary to control the use of property in accordance with the general interest or to secure the payment of taxes or other contributions or penalties.’ ”<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />This Court in Revamma case also mentioned that the European Council of Human Rights<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />importantly laid down three-pronged test to judge the interference of the Government with<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />the right of “peaceful enjoyment of property : (SCC p. 79, para 53)<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />“53. ... [In] Beyeler v. Italy [GC] No. 33202 of 1996 §§ 108-14 ECHR 2000-I, it was held<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />that the ‘interference’ should comply with the principle of lawfulness and pursue a legitimate<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />aim (public interest) by means reasonably proportionate to the aim sought to be realised.”2<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />The Court observed:(Revamma case 79-80, paras 54-56)<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />“54. ... ‘The question nevertheless remains whether, even having regard to the lack of care<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />and inadvertence on the part of the applicants and their advisers, the deprivation of their title<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />to the registered land and the transfer of beneficial ownership to those in unauthorized possession struck a fair balance with any legitimate public interest served.In these circumstances, the Court concludes that the application of the provisions of the 1925 and 1980 Acts to deprive the applicant companies of their title to the registered land imposed on them an<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />individual and excessive burden and upset the fair balance between the demands of the<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />public interest on the one hand and the applicants’ right to the peaceful enjoyment of their possessions on the other. There has therefore been a violation of Article 1 of Protocol 1.’<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />55. The question of the application of Article 41 was referred for the Grand Chamber Hearing of the ECHR. This case sets the field of adverse possession and its interface with the right to peaceful enjoyment in all its complexity.<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />56. Therefore it will have to be kept in mind the courts around the world are taking an unkind view towards statutes of limitation overriding property rights.”</blockquote>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">39. In Hemaji Waghaji Jat case, this Court ultimatelyobserved as under:</span><br />
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<b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">“32.</b> Before parting with this case, we deem it<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />appropriate to observe that the law of adverse<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />possession which ousts an owner on the basis of<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />inaction within limitation is irrational, illogical and<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />wholly disproportionate. The law as it exists is<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />extremely harsh for the true owner and a windfall<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />for a dishonest person who had illegally taken<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />possession of the property of the true owner. The<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />law ought not to benefit a person who in a<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />clandestine manner takes possession of the<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />property of the owner in contravention of law. This<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />in substance would mean that the law gives seal of<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />approval to the illegal action or activities of a rank<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />trespasser or who had wrongfully taken possession<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />of the property of the true owner.<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">33.</b> We fail to comprehend why the law<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />should place premium on dishonesty by<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />legitimising possession of a rank trespasser and<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />compelling the owner to lose his possession only<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />because of his inaction in taking back the<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />possession within limitation.”<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />Fifth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution – a<br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" />principle of a civilized society</blockquote>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">40. Another important development in the protection of property rights was the Fifth Amendment. James</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Madison was the drafter and key supporter for the Fifth Amendment. The Fifth Amendment states: “nor shall</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">private property be taken for public use, without just compensation”. The main issue is to pay just compensation for acquiring the property. There are primarily two situations when a landowner may obtain</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">compensation for land officially transferred to or 2 depreciated by the government. First, an owner may be</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">entitled to compensation when a governmental entity intentionally acquires private property through a formal</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">condemnation proceeding and without the owner’sconsent. The State’s power to take property is considered inherent through its eminent domain powers as a sovereign. Through the condemnation proceedings, the government obtains the necessary interest in the land, and the Fifth Amendment requires that the property owner be compensated for this loss.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">41. The second situation requiring compensation under Fifth Amendment occurs when the government has not officially acquired private property through a formal condemnation proceeding, but “nonetheless</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">takes property by physically invading or appropriating it”. Under this scenario, the property owner, at the</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">point in which a “taking” has occurred, has the option of filing a claim against the government actor to recover just compensation for the loss. When the landowner sues the government seeking compensation for a taking, 2 it is considered an inverse condemnation proceeding, because the landowner and not the government is bringing the cause of action.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">42. We inherited this law of adverse possession from the British. The Parliament may consider abolishing the law of adverse possession or at least amending and making substantial changes in law in the larger public interest. The Government instrumentalities – including the police – in the instant case have attempted to possess land adversely. This, in our opinion, a testament to the absurdity of the law and a black mark upon the justice system’s legitimacy. The Government should protect the property of a citizen – not steal it. And yet, as the law currently stands, they may do just that. If this law is to be retained, according</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">to the wisdom of the Parliament, then at least the law must require those who adversely possess land to compensate title owners according to the prevalent market rate of the land or property in question. This alternative would provide some semblance of justice to those who have done nothing other than sitting on their rights for the statutory period, while allowing the adverse possessor to remain on property.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">2 While it may be indefensible to require all adverse possessors – some of whom may be poor – to pay market ates for the land they possess, perhaps some lesser amount would be realistic in most of the cases. The Parliament may either fix a set range of rates or to leave it to the judiciary with the option of choosing from within a set range of rates so as to tailor the compensation to the equities of a given case.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">43. The Parliament must seriously consider at least to abolish “bad faith” adverse possession, i.e., adverse</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">possession achieved through intentional trespassing. Actually believing it to be their own could receive title</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">through adverse possession sends a wrong signal to the society at large. Such a change would ensure that only those who had established attachments to the land through honest means would be entitled to legal relief.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">44. In case, the Parliament decides to retain the law of adverse possession, the Parliament might simply require adverse possession claimants to possess the property in question for a period of 30 to 50 years, rather than a mere 12. Such an extension would help to ensure that 2 successful claimants have lived on the land for generations, and are therefore less likely to be individually culpable for the trespass (although their forebears might). A longer statutory period would also decrease the frequency of adverse possession suits and ensure that only those claimants most intimately connected with the land acquire it, while only the most passive and unprotective owners lose title.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">45. Reverting to the facts of this case, if the Police department of the State with all its might is bent upon taking possession of any land or building in a clandestine manner, then, perhaps no one would be able to effectively prevent them.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">46. It is our bounden duty and obligation to ascertain the intention of the Parliament while interpreting the law. Law and Justice, more often than not, happily coincide only rarely we find serious conflict. The archaic law of adverse possession is one such. A serious re-look is absolutely imperative in the larger interest of the people.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">47. Adverse possession allows a trespasser – a person guilty of a tort, or even a crime, in the eyes of law - to gain legal title to land which he has illegally possessed for 12 years. How 12 years of illegality can suddenly be converted to legal title is, logically and morally speaking, baffling. This outmoded law essentially asks the judiciary to place its stamp of approval upon conduct that the ordinary Indian citizen would find reprehensible.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">48. The doctrine of adverse possession has troubled a great many legal minds. We are clearly of the opinion that time has come for change.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">49. If the protectors of law become the grabbers of the property (land and building), then, people will be left with no protection and there would be a total anarchy in the entire country.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">50. It is indeed a very disturbing and dangerous trend. In our considered view, it must be arrested without further loss of time in the larger public interest. No Government Department, Public Undertaking, and much less the Police Department should be permitted to perfect the title of the land or building by invoking the provisions of adverse possession and grab the property of its own citizens in the manner that has been done in this case.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">51. In our considered view, there is an urgent need for a fresh look of the entire law on adverse possession. We recommend the Union of India to immediately consider and seriously deliberate either abolition of the law of adverse possession and in the alternate to make suitable amendments in the law of adverse possession. A copy of this judgment be sent to the Secretary, Ministry of Law and Justice, Department of Legal Affairs, Government of India fortaking appropriate steps in accordance with law.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">52. This Special Leave Petition is dismissed with costs of Rs.50,000/- (Rupees Fifty Thousand only) to be paid by the State of Haryana for filing a totally frivolous petition and unnecessarily wasting the time of the Court and demonstrating its evil design of grabbing the properties of lawful owners in a clandestine manner. The costs be deposited within four weeks from the date of pronouncement of this judgment. In this petition, we did not issue notice to the defendants, therefore, we direct that the costs be deposited with the National Legal Services Authority for utilizing the same to enable the poor litigants to contest their cases.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">53. This Special Leave Petition being devoid of any merit is accordingly dismissed.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 22px;">Haider Ajaz </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 12.800000190734863px; line-height: 22px;">Advocate</span></span>Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-89005140144849793702013-07-20T11:56:00.003+05:302013-07-20T11:56:28.043+05:30An Unauthorized Occupant with Long Continuous Possession can Protect the same by seeking an Injunction against any person in the world except True Owner<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 5pt 0.25in; padding: 0px; text-align: center;">
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: medium; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Before :- Rakesh Kumar Garg, J.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: medium; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">RSA No.1037 of 2010 (O & M). D/d. 10.3.2010.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-size: medium; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Sajjan</span></i></b><span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Singh</i></b> and <b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Anr</i></b> . - Appellants<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-size: medium; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; color: red; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Versus</span><span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-size: medium; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Gram</span></i></b><span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> <b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Panchayat</i></b> and Ors. - Respondents<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; color: blue; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: medium; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: start;">2010(2) ICC 271</span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span><span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">For the Appellants :- Mr. B.R. Mahajan, Advocate.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; color: red; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span></b><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; color: red; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">A. Specific Relief Act, 1963, Sections <span style="border: 0px; color: blue; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">37</span> and <span style="border: 0px; color: blue; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">41</span> - Civil Procedure Code, 1908, Section <span style="border: 0px; color: blue; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">100</span> - Permanent injunction - Unauthorised occupant - A person who has been in long continuous possession can protect the same by seeking an injunction against any person in the world other than the true owner - Appellants are not entitled to the relief of injunction against the respondent Gram Panchayat who is the true owner. </span></b><span style="border: 0px; color: red; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">[Para 15]</span><br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="border: 0px; color: red; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span></div>
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<b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; color: red; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">B. Specific Relief Act, 1963, Sections <span style="border: 0px; color: blue; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">37</span> and <span style="border: 0px; color: blue; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">41</span> - Civil Procedure Code, 1908, Section <span style="border: 0px; color: blue; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">100</span> - Occupancy rights - Declaration and injunction - Revenue record do not show the existence of occupancy tenancy with respect to the plaintiffs or their father as no written agreement has been proved on record on their behalf which allegedly had taken place between them and the defendant Gram Panchayat with respect to the disputed land which could show the nature of the tenancy at its inception - Moreover, there is no cogent evidence to the effect that at the time of inception of the tenancy, there was an agreement between the parties to the suit to the effect that the plaintiffs could not be ejected from the disputed land at all - From the evidence, it is amply clear that the disputed land is owned by the defendant-Gram Panchayat - In these circumstances, the plaintiffs cannot be said to have acquired occupancy rights in the part of the disputed land. </span></b><span style="border: 0px; color: red; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">[Para 13]</span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; color: purple; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span></b></span><span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; color: purple; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cases Referred :</span></b></span><span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">1. Ram Karan v. The Financial Commissioner and Others, 1980 P.L.J. 295.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">2. Partaprai N. Kothari v. John Braganza, 1999 (3) L.J.R.152.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-size: medium; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></b></span></span><span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-size: medium; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">JUDGMENT</b></span><span style="border: 0px; font-size: x-small; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Rakesh Kumar Garg, J.</span></b><span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> - This is plaintiffs' second appeal challenging the judgment and decrees of the courts below whereby their suit for declaration and injunction was dismissed.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">2. The brief facts necessary for the disposal of the instant appeal as emanating from the impugned judgment and decrees are that the father of the appellants namely Des Raj had taken lands measuring 15 kanals 7 marlas and 23 kanals 8 marlas as detailed in the headnote of the plaint for the purpose of cultivation in the capacity of Ghair Morusi. Land measuring 15 kanals 7 marlas was taken on rent at the rate of Rs.20/- per year (chakota saal tamam) from the defendant/respondent Gram Panchayat about 50 years ago. The land was uneven and unfit for cultivation and an agreement was arrived at between the father of the plaintiffs and defendant Gram Panchayat to the effect that after the father of the plaintiffs shall make the disputed land cultivable, he and his successors would never be ejected from the land till they pay the requisite rent. Under the agreement, the father of the plaintiffs made the disputed land cultivable and thereafter started cultivating the same. After some time with mutual consent the rent of the disputed land was enhanced to Rs.25/- per year (chakota saal tamam). The father of the plaintiffs during his lifetime remained in cultivating possession of the disputed land and also made regular payment of rent qua the same. The Gram Panchayat in connivance with the revenue authorities got substituted the words 'lessee' in column No.5 against the words 'Ghair Morusi' and in column No.9 relating to the rent the words 'Rs.25/-' were deleted. The change of the entries in the revenue record qua the disputed land were wrong and not binding on the rights of the plaintiffs and were liable to be corrected. No orders by any of the revenue officers were passed regarding change in the revenue entries and no notice was ever issued to the plaintiffs or their father in this regard.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">3. It is further case of the appellants that after the death of their father tenancy rights have been inherited by them which have now ripened into an ownership with respect to the aforesaid land measuring 15 kanals 7 marlas as per the Punjab Occupancy Tenants(Vesting of Proprietary Right)Act, 1952. The other part of the disputed land measuring 23 kanals 8 marlas the same was given to the father of the plaintiffs in capacity as of Ghair Morusi tenant on rent. However, the Gram Panchayat in connivance with the revenue authorities got substituted the word 'lessee' against the word 'Ghair Morusi Tenant' in the revenue record and those entries were wrong and not binding on the rights of the plaintiffs. No ejectment order was ever passed against the plaintiffs or their father with respect to the disputed land. Defendant-Gram Panchayat cannot without taking prior possession from the plaintiffs lease out the aforesaid land to another person. The defendants on the basis of the wrong revenue entries were bent upon to take forcible possession of the disputed land. Hence the necessity arose to file the present suit.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">4. Upon notice, defendant Nos.1 and 3 appeared and contested the suit by filing written statement wherein various preliminary objections were raised. On merits, it was averred that disputed land was Shamlat Deh and was leased in an open auction and was in possession of the lessee. It was further submitted that the disputed land was never given to the father of the plaintiffs under any agreement and as such the question of the plaintiffs or their father to be in possession of the disputed land does not arise at all. It was further averred that the disputed land vested in Gram Panchayat and suit land measuring 15 kanals 7 marlas was given to defendant No.3 on lease for the year 2001-02 and was in his cultivating possession. Other part of the land measuring 23 kanals 8 marlas was in possession of one Ishwar from year 2001-02 on lease. The plaintiffs had no right, title or interest in the disputed land. Dismissal of the suit was prayed for.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">5. After hearing both the parties, issues No 1 to 3 were decided against the plaintiffs, whereas issue No.4 to 7 were decided against the defendants. On the basis of the findings on various issues, the trial court dismissed the suit vide judgment and decree dated 29.11.2006.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">6. Aggrieved with the above said judgment and decree, the plaintiffs filed an appeal. Upon notice, respondent No.1 Gram Panchayat appeared. However, respondent Nos.2 and 3 were proceeded against ex parte.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">7. It is relevant to mention that the plaintiffs had also moved an application for leading additional evidence under Order 41 Rule 27 read with Section 151 CPC for placing on record eviction petition moved by Gram Panchayat/defendant wherein Gram Panchayat alleged that the plaintiffs were in possession whereas Gram Panchayat had denied possession of the plaintiffs over the suit land in their written statement. The aforesaid application was opposed on the ground that the aforesaid copy of the eviction petition was not necessary to adjudicate the point involved in the present appeal as there would be no change in the nature of the suit on account of filing of ejectment petition as the plaintiffs had filed the suit for declaration claiming the ownership of suit land which was shamlat land.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">8. The aforesaid application was dismissed by the Lower Appellate Court finding that the aforesaid additional evidence would not improve the case of the plaintiffs in any manner as they were stated to be in unauthorized possession of the suit land and if the plaintiffs would admit the contents of the aforesaid documents then it would be against the case of appellants as they were claiming ownership rights having occupancy tenancy rights vested in them in suit land measuring 15 kanals 7 marlas and being tenant on the remaining land.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">9. On merits also on reappraisal of the evidence the Lower Appellate Court recorded a finding of fact that the plaintiffs have miserably failed to show that they were in continuing possession over the suit land as Gair Morusi tenant. Regarding the claim of the plaintiffs for occupancy rights under the provisions of Punjab Occupancy Tenants(Vesting of Proprietary Rights)Act, 1952, it was found that they have failed to fulfill the requirement of having such right and thus the Lower Appellate court dismissed the appeal vide impugned judgment and decree dated 05.02.2010.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">10. Still not satisfied, the plaintiffs have approached this Court by filing this appeal.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">11. Learned counsel for the appellants has vehemently argued that the findings of the courts below to the effect that the plaintiffs have failed to prove continuous possession over the suit land suffers from perversity and was contrary to the admission of defendants in the ejectment application dated 23.07.2007 in which the possession of the plaintiffs for more than 10 years was admitted by defendants. It has been further argued on behalf of the appellants that entry of Ghair Morusi in favour of the appellants was deleted unauthorizedly and the change in revenue record by incorporating wrong entries was done without any order of any authority. The material evidence has been ignored by the courts below and the findings so recorded suffer from perversity and as such cannot be sustained. On the basis of the aforesaid arguments learned counsel for the appellants has submitted that following substantial question of law arise in this appeal:<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">1. Whether the judgments and decree of the courts below suffer from perversity, being contrary to evidence on record and settled principles of law and therefore unsustainable?<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">12. I have heard learned counsel for the appellants and perused the impugned judgment and decrees.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">13. From the pleadings of the parties and the arguments raised by the learned counsel for the appellants, it may be noticed that appellants are claiming that land measuring 15 kanals 7 marlas vested in them under the provisions of Punjab Occupancy Tenants(Vesting of Proprietory Right) Act 1952 and were in possession of the remaining land being tenants and therefore they were entitled to the relief as sought. As far as claiming of occupancy rights is concerned, it is well settled that person who claims to have become owner of the land under the provisions of the Vesting of Proprietory Right Act must show that he was recorded as occupancy tenant in the revenue record with regard to the said land. From the evidence adduced on record, the names of the plaintiffs or their father have not been recorded as occupancy tenants in the revenue record immediately before the commencement of the Vesting of Proprietory Act. Nor they have claimed to have right of occupancy in the disputed land at any time after the commencement of the Act of 1952. The revenue record do not show the existence of occupancy tenancy with respect to the plaintiffs or their father as no written agreement has been proved on record on their behalf which allegedly had taken place between them and the defendant Gram Panchayat with respect to the disputed land which could show the nature of the tenancy at its inception Moreover, there is no cogent evidence to the effect that at the time of inception of the tenancy, there was an agreement between the parties to the suit to the effect that the plaintiffs could not be ejected from the disputed land at all. From the evidence on the file, it is amply clear that the disputed land is owned by the defendant-Gram Panchayat. In these circumstances, the plaintiffs cannot be said to have acquired occupancy rights in the part of the disputed land measuring 15 kanals 7 marlas. With regard to the claim of the plaintiffs that they were Ghair Morusi tenants in possession with respect to another part of the property measuring 23 kanals 8 marlas in the revenue record placed on the file, there is no entry with respect to the payment of any rent in the rent column since the year 1971-72.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">14. In case titled as <b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ram Karan v. The Financial Commissioner and others 1980 P.L.J.295</i></b> it has been observed by this court that:<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">"It is settled law that generally in the revenue record, the persons even in unauthorized possession are described as Ghair Morusi(tenants) in the column of cultivation but from this entry alone, it cannot be held that the status of such persons is that of tenants unless in the rent column it is disclosed that such persons were liable to pay rent."<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Thus, no fault can be found in the impugned judgment and decree.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">15. As regards relief of injunction as prayed for by the plaintiffs with respect to the disputed land against the defendant Gram Panchayat is concerned, in case titled as <b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Partaprai N.Kothari v. John Braganza 1999 (3) L.J.R.152</i></b> it has been observed by Hon'ble Supreme Court of India that a person who has been in long continuous possession can protect the same by seeking an injunction against any person in the world other than the true owner.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">16. In view of the aforesaid, the appellants are not entitled to the relief of injuction against the respondent Gram Panchayat who is the true owner.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">17. No other point was urged.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">18. Thus, no question of law much less substantial question of law arises in this appeal.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">19. No merits.<o:p style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">20. Dismissed.</span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Thanks to: law.geek upd8</span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Haider Ajaz </span></div>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Advocate</span></div>
Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-72979394877932876602013-07-20T11:26:00.000+05:302013-07-20T11:26:37.832+05:30There is distinction between loan agreement and Hire purchaser agreement, Financier Company cannot take possession of goods purchased under loan agreement for non-payment of loan<h3 style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
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<span style="font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; font-size: medium;">Before :- Adarsh Kumar Goel, J.</span><span style="font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; font-size: medium;"> </span></center>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; font-size: medium; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Criminal Misc No. 24270-M of 1999. D/d. 29.5.2002.</span></center>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; font-size: large; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Tarun </span>Bhargava - Petitioner</span></center>
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; font-size: large; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">State of Haryana - Respondents</span></center>
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<br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">For the Petitioner :- Mr. Hemant Kumar, Advocate. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">For the Respondent :- Mr. Rajesh Bhardwarj, AAG, Haryana. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #cc0000; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></b></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"></span><span style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #38761d; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">A. Contract Act, Sections 172, 176 - Indian Penal Code, Sections 392, 506 - A person purchasing vehicle - Loan advanced by Finance Company - Financier taking possession of vehicle for non-payment of instalments - FIR under Sections 392, 506 IPC - No ground to quash FIR - It was loan agreement - A Clause in the agreement that financier was entitled to take possession is void. AIR 1966 SC 1178 relied. </b>[Paras 28 and 30]</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; color: #38761d; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"></span><span style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #38761d; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">B. Contract Act, Sections 172, 176 - There is distinction between loan agreement and Hire purchaser agreement - Financier Court cannot take possession of goods purchased under loan agreement for non-payment of loan - It is open to court to determine whether an agreement was loan agreement or hire purchase agreement. </b>[Paras 28, 30, 20 and 23]</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; color: #38761d; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"></span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; color: #38761d; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">C. Contract Act, Sections 172, 176 - Hire Purchaser agreement - Loan Agreement - Purchase of goods under Hire purchaser Agreement - Law summoned up :- </span></b><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; color: #38761d; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">1. A hire-purchase agreement may in substance be a loan transaction and the label of such an agreement is not conclusive. It is open to the Court to determine whether a particular agreement is a loan transaction or a hire- purchase agreement. The parameters to be applied are laid down, inter alia, in the judgment of the Supreme Court in Sundaram Finance Ltd.'s case, AIR 1966 SC 1178. In the present case, the agreement though termed as hire- purchase agreement, is held to be a loan agreement. </span></b><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; color: #38761d; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">2. In a loan agreement for financing goods on hypothecated basis, the creditor cannot forcibly repossess the hypothecated item though he can enforce the security through the Court. </span></b><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; color: #38761d; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">3. If a specific clause is inserted in an agreement authorizing repossession of a vehicle or any other goods by the hypothecatee, such a clause may be unconscionable, unless otherwise shown by the hypothecate and such a clause inserted in the present case is held to be void. </span></b><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #38761d; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">4. Forcible repossession without intervention of the Court may involve commission of an offence and what offence has been committed will depend on facts of an individual case. The judgments of the Supreme Court in hire purchase cases holding that in a hire purchase agreement, the owner cannot be guilty of theft of his own property, will not be applicable to cases where the transaction is, in substance, a loan transaction, as in a loan transaction, the ownership will be of the borrower and the principle applicable to a hire purchase agreement will not apply. </b>[Para 30]</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; color: #38761d; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"></span><span style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #38761d; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">D. Indian Penal Code, Sections 392, 506 - Contract Act, Sections 172, 176 - Hire Purchase agreement - A person purchasing vehicle - Loan advanced by Finance Company - It is loan agreement - Under agreement financier given right to take possession of vehicle in case of default and forfeit the instalments already paid - This clause is void - Financier criminally liable if he forcibly takes possession of vehicle - He had remedy through Court - Case under Sections 392, 506 IPC registered against financier for taking possession of vehicle. </b>[Paras 20, 23, 26, 28 and 30]</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; color: #38761d; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"></span><span style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #38761d; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">E. Contract Act, Sections 177, 176 - Loan agreement and Hire Purchase Agreement - Distinction - A person purchasing car - Loan financed by a Financial Company - Financier given right to take possession of car if the purchaser failed to pay instalments of loan - Held, it is in fact loan agreement and not Hire Purchase Agreement - Finance Company not entitled to take possession of car for default in payment of loan instalments. </b>[Paras 11 and 12]</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; color: #38761d; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"></span><span style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #38761d; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">F. Hire Purchase Agreement and Loan Agreement - Distinction - Hire purchase agreement is the one under which an owner hires goods to a hirer and option to purchase the goods - On the other hand, when a person borrows money and pays it to vendor transaction between the customer and the lender will be a loan transaction - In a hire purchase agreement, the hirer is under no obligation to buy - Where the customer is himself the owner and with a view to finance his purchase, he enters into an arrangement in the form of hire purchase agreement, it will be a loan transaction. </b>[Para 11]</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; color: #38761d; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"></span><span style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #38761d; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">G. Hire Purchase Act, 1972 - Though Hire Purchase Act brought into force, the notification bringing the Act into force was rescinded and the effect is that the Act is not in force. </b>[Para 23]</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="border: 0px; color: #38761d; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"></span><span style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #38761d; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><b style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">H. Contract Act, Sections 172, 176 - Hypothecation and pledge - Hypothecation of goods against loan - Default in payment of loan - Hypothecatee is not entitled to physically and repossess the hypothecated goods against wishes of hypothecator - Hypothecatee has a right to take possession or to sell the hypothecated property through Court or to give notice to the hypothecator to enforce the security. </b>[Paras 20, 21, 22, 23 and 26]</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #00cc00; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"></span><br />
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; font-size: large; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Cases referred :</span></h3>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Instalment Supply (Private) Ltd. v. Union of India, AIR 1962 SC 53.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">K.L. Johar & Co. v. Deputy Commercial Tax Officer, Coimbatore III, AIR 1965 SC 1082. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Instalment Supply Ltd. v. S.T.O. Ahmedabad and others, AIR 1974 SC 1105.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Sundaram Finance Ltd. v. State of Kerala and another, AIR 1966 SC 1178.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Sardar Trilok Singh v. Satya Deo Tripathi, AIR 1979 SC 850.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">K.A. Mathai v. Kora Bibbikutty, 1996(7) SCC 212.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Manipal Finance Corpn. Ltd. v. T. Bangarappa and another, 1994 Supp. (1) SCC 507.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Charanjit Singh Chadha v. Sudhir Mehra, 2001(4) RCR(Criminal) 192 (SC).</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Phul Bus Service v. Financial Commissioner, Taxation, Punjab, 1968 ACJ 57.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Panna Lal v. Shri Chand Mal, 1980 ACJ 233.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Vasantha Viswanathan v. V.K. Elayalwar, 2001(8) SCC 133.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Dr. T.V. Jose v. Chacko P.M. Alias Thankachan, 2001(8) SCC 478.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Central Bureau of Investigation v. Duncans Agro Industries Ltd., Calcutta, AIR 1996 SC 2452.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Central Inland Water Transport Corpn. Ltd. v. Brojo Nath Ganguly, AIR 1986 SC 1571.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Nirmal Singh Kandola v. State of Punjab and others, Civil Writ Petition No. 16803 of 1998, decided on 6.9.1999.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Fateh Chand v. Balkishan Das, AIR 1963 SC 1405.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Bridge v. Campbell Discount Co. Ltd., 1962 AC 600 : 1962(1) All ER 385.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Galbraith v. Mitchenall Estates Ltd., 1964(2) All ER 653.</span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><a href="" name="more" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #104e8b; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></a><br />
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<span style="border: 0px; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; font-size: large; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">JUDGMENT</span></center>
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<b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"></span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Adarsh Kumar Goel, J.</b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"> - This petition has been filed for quashing the FIR No. 1237 dated 24.10.1997, under Sections 392/323/506/120-B of the Indian Penal Code (for short, the Code), Police Station City Gurgaon. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">2. The above FIR was registered on a direction of the Chief Judicial Magistrate under Section 156(3) Cr.P.C. on the complaint filed by respondent No. 2 (hereinafter referred to as the complainant), wherein it was stated that the complainant purchased a car for Rs. 2,44,603/- through the accused petitioner (hereinafter referred to as the petitioner) in August, 1995 and paid an initial amount of Rs. 52,511/- and paid 26 instalments of Rs. 8,944/- each amounting to Rs. 2,32,544/- and though there was no default by the petitioner in the payment of instalments upto 20.10.1977, the petitioner along with others went to the place of the complainant and snatched the car from him by using a duplicate key which was with the accused. It is further stated that the complainant was the registered owner of the car and though he objected to the car being taken away, the petitioner used filthy language and pushed away the complainant and forcibly took away the car. It is also stated that the complainant was threatened with dire consequences, if he pursued his complaint with the consumer forum and thus the petitioner committed an offence under Sections 323/506/392/120-B of the Code. It was further stated that though the accused has assured that relevant papers and second key of the car will be given to the complainant, no paper and second key of the car was handed over to the complainant. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">3. In the petition filed in this Court, it is stated that the petitioner company was doing the business of a financier and had entered into an agreement under which if there are more than two consecutive defaults, the financier could take repossession of the vehicle. It is also stated that apart from possession of the vehicle, the petitioner finance company was also entitled to balance amount of Rs. 1,10,796.95 and the act of taking possession of the car did not amount to an offence under Section 392 of the Code nor offences under Sections 323/506/120-B of the Code can be said to have been committed. It is also stated in the petition that post-dated cheques were given by the complainant and after May, 1997 the cheques were dishonoured, for which a notice dated 28.9.1997 was given and the petitioner had filed a complaint under Section 138 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 for dishonour of the cheques, which was pending. The complaint is annexed to the petition as Annexure P-11, which does not support this version and shows that the dishonoured cheques are dated 28.12.1997, 28.1.1998 and 28.2.1998, which are all after the date of repossession i.e. after 20.10.1997. It is further stated that the complainant has filed a civil suit, a copy of which is Annexure P-8. A reference to the plaint of the said suit, Annexure P-8, shows that the case of the complainant was that the petitioner had given 31 blank undated signed cheques. On a proposal for financing the car, the complainant/plaintiff was made to sign blank agreement with an assurance that a copy of the agreement will be given to the complainant, which was never given; summary of agreement was given to the plaintiff, which was not as per the agreed terms; though all instalments were regularly paid, the vehicle was illegally snatched and on demand of the vehicle the complainant was given threats, which has led to the filing of the complaint and in complaint proceedings, the plaintiff has been given possession of the vehicle on superdari. A declaration is sought that the agreement between the parties was null and void. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">4. It is further stated in the petition that the petitioner had acted under an agreement, a copy of which was Annexure P-1 and under the said agreement, the ownership was with the petitioner and the petitioner could repossess the vehicle at any time, forfeit the instalments paid and take proceedings for recovery of the balance amount. The complainant has merely right to use the vehicle on certain conditions and under the agreement, the petitioner had unilateral right to hold that there was violation of the conditions and without notice to the complainant, repossess the vehicle. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">5. Counsel for the petitioner relied on judgments of the Supreme Court in </span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Instalment Supply (Private) Ltd. v. Union of India, AIR 1962 SC 53</i></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">; </span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">M/s. K.L. Johar & Co. v. The Deputy Commercial Tax Officer, Coimbatore III, AIR 1965 SC 1082</i></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">; </span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The Instalment Supply Ltd. v. S.T.O. Ahmedabad and others, AIR 1974 SC 1105</i></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">; </span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Sundaram Finance Ltd. v. The State of Kerala and another, AIR 1966 SC 1178</i></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">; </span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Sardar Trilok Singh v. Satya Deo Tripathi, AIR 1979 SC 850</i></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">; </span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">K.A. Mathai v. Kora Bibbikutty, 1996(7) SCC 212</i></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">; </span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Manipal Finance Corpn. Ltd. v. T. Bangarappa and another, 1994 Supp. (1) SCC 507</i></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"> and</span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Charanjit Singh Chadha v. Sudhir Mehra, 2001(4) RCR(Criminal) 192 (SC) : 2001(7) SCC 417</i></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">6. Counsel for the State contested the petition and stated that for the purpose of considering the petition under Section 482 Cr.P.C., allegations in the complaint had to be taken as correct and proceedings cannot be quashed by accepting the defence set up by the accused. It is submitted that a label put on an agreement, which may in substance be a loan agreement, could not be conclusive of the agreement being hire purchase agreement. It is further submitted that conferring of a unilateral right on any party to take forcible possession without intervention of the Court would not be conducive to public policy as the same could lead to breaking of heads or victimisation of a weaker party. It was submitted that the complainant was the registered owner of the vehicle and claimed to have paid back the loan. A financier could not be given a right to decide for himself that the loan had not been repaid and, therefore, the financier was not entitled to take forcible possession of the vehicle besides claiming the unpaid amount. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">7. The following questions arises for consideration :- </span><br />
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">1) Whether the agreement in question, Annexure P-1, termed as hire purchase agreement, is in substance a loan agreement ?</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">2) If the above agreement is a loan agreement, whether rights of the parties will be different and if so, to what extent ?</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">3) (a) Whether clause 4 of the agreement enabling the petitioner to forfeit all instalments paid by the complainant and entitling the financier to enter the in house or place, where the vehicle is, to seize, remove and retake the possession is valid ?</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(b) Whether clause 7 of the agreement, which permits the petitioner to refuse to give credit or set off the payment already made, when the vehicle is seized by the petitioner under clause 4 of the agreement or surrendered by the complainant, is valid ?</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">4) What is the remedy of the complainant against unjustified repossession by the petitioner/financier ? and</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">5) Whether proceedings against the petitioner are liable to be quashed ?</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">Clauses 4 and 7 of the agreement in question are as under :-</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">"4. In case the Hirer shall during the continuance of this agreement do or suffer any of the following acts or things viz. either :-</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">a) fail to pay any of the hiring instalments within the stipulated time whether demanded or not;</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">b) become insolvent or compound with his/her/their creditors;</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">c) pledge or sell or attempt to pledge or sell or otherwise alienate or transfer the vehicle/s;</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">d) do or suffer any act or thing whereby or in consequence of which the said vehicle/s may be distrained, seized or taken in execution under legal process;</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">e) break or fail to perform or observe any condition on their part herein contained;</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">then and in such cases rights of the Hirer under this agreement shall forthwith be determined <i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">ipso-facto</i> without any notice to the Hirer/s and <i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">all the instalments previously paid by the Hirer shall be absolutely forfeited to the owner, who shall thereupon be entitled to enter any house or place where the said vehicles may then be and seize, remove and retake possession of it/them and to sue for all the instalments due and for damages for breach of the agreement and for all the costs of retaking possession of the said vehicle/s and all costs occasioned by the Hirer's default</i>." (underlining supplied)</ul>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">7. If the owner should seize the vehicle/s and take possession of it/them under clause 4 thereof; or if the Hirer should at any time return it/them under clause 5 thereof, the Hirer shall remain liable to the owner for arrears of hire amount upto the date of such seizure or return and shall not on any ground whatsoever be entitled to any allowance, credit or set-off for payments previously made." </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">8. Since answer to question No. 5, which is the ultimate question in the present petition rests on first four questions, I will first take up the above four questions. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">9. The first question is whether the agreement between the parties is a loan agreement or a hire purchase agreement. Agreement between the parties has been annexed as annexure P-1, wherein the petitioner is described as the owner and the complainant is described as the hirer. Clause 4 provides for forfeiture of all instalments paid, if the hirer fails to pay any of the instalments or commits other defaults as mentioned in the said clause and the owner will be entitled to take possession of the vehicle. Clause 8 provides that hirer will be permitted to have the vehicle registered in his name. In Sundaram Finance Ltd.'s case (supra), the question posed before the Supreme Court was whether a finance company was liable to pay sales tax on transferring goods on hire purchase basis, as such transfer would amount to sale. After interpreting an identical agreement, the Supreme Court held that the intention of the parties appeared to be only to secure payment and the label of hire purchase was not conclusive and a hire purchase agreement should be read as a loan agreement only. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">10. I am of the view that the present agreement was also merely a loan agreement and the ownership was with the complainant and the petitioner was merely a financier. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">11. Hire purchase agreement is the one under which an owner hires goods to a hirer, giving the hirer an option to purchase the goods. On the other hand, when a person borrows money and pays it to vendor, transaction between the customer and the lender will be a loan transaction. In a hire purchase agreement, the hirer is under no obligation to buy. Where the customer is himself the owner and with a view to finance his purchase, he enters into an agreement in the form of hire purchase agreement, it will be a loan transaction. The present petitioner is not a dealer of motor vehicles, but is in independent business of finance. The vehicle purchased is in the name of the complainant and the complainant is the real owner of the vehicle. Moreover, in quashing proceedings averments made in the complaint have to be accepted as correct, which states that the complaint was the owner and if the accused petitioner wants to dispute this averments and claims that the complainant was not the owner, such averment cannot be accepted, particularly when the agreement appears in substance to be a loan agreement. Similar agreement was considered by the Supreme Court in Sundaram Finance Ltd.'s case (supra), wherein the majority view was that such an agreement would be a loan agreement. Shah, J. on behalf of the majority observed as under :- </span><br />
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">"It is also to be noted that the agreement does not contemplate exercise of an option on payment of a nominal sum of money as is to be found in other hire purchase agreements. Execution of the promissory note, the hire purchase agreement and the other documents, in our judgment, indicate that it was the intention of the parties not to transfer any interest in the vehicle by the customer to the appellants; it was intended to give security by hypothecating the vehicle in favour of the appellants and for ensuring repayment of the loan advanced that the customer submitted to the various onerous conditions of the hire purchase agreement..................."</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">"In the light of these principles the true nature of the transactions of the appellants may now be stated. The appellants are carrying on the business of financiers; they are not dealing in motor vehicles. The motor vehicle purchased by the customer is registered in the name of the customer and remains at all material times so registered in his name. In the letter taken from the customer under which the latter agrees to keep the vehicle insured, it is expressly recited that the vehicle has been given as security for the loan advanced by the appellants. As a security for repayment of the loan the customer executes a promissory note for the amount paid by the appellants to the dealer of the vehicle. The so-called 'sale letter' is a formal document which is not made effective by registering the vehicle in the name of the appellants and even the insurance of the vehicle has to be effected as if the customer is the owner. Their right to seize the vehicle is merely a licence to ensure compliance with the terms of the hire purchase agreement. The customer remains qua the world at large the owner and remains in possession, and on condition of performing the covenants has a right to continue to remain in possession. The right of the appellants may be extinguished by payment of the amount due to them under the terms of the hire purchase agreement even before the dates fixed for payment. The agreement undoubtedly contains several onerous covenants, but they are all intended to secure to the appellants recovery of the amount advanced. We are accordingly of the view that the intention of the appellants in obtaining the hire purchase and the allied agreements was to secure the return of loans advanced to their customers, and no real sale of the vehicle was intended by the customer to the appellants. The transactions were merely financing transactions."</ul>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">12. The present case appears to be similar to the case before the Supreme Court in Sundaram Finance Ltd.'s case (supra). I am, therefore, of the view that though the agreement is labelled as hire purchase finance agreement, the agreement is a loan transaction. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">13. Learned counsel for the petitioner referred to a judgment of this Court in </span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Phul Bus Service v. Financial Commissioner, Taxation, Punjab, 1968 ACJ 57</i></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"> and judgments of the Supreme Court in </span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Panna Lal v. Shri Chand Mal, 1980 ACJ 233</i></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">; </span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Vasantha Viswanathan v. V.K. Elayalwar, 2001(8) SCC 133</i></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"> and </span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Dr. T.V. Jose v. Chacko P.M. Alias Thankachan, 2001(8) SCC 478</i></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">, wherein it was laid down that even if a person is not entered as owner, under the provisions of Motor Vehicles Act, he can still be owner. There is no dispute with this legal proposition. In holding that the complainant was the owner, I am not going by the mere fact that he was entered as such under the provisions of the Motor Vehicles Act, though this is one relevant circumstances. Similarly, I am not holding that the petitioner was not the owner, I am not influenced by this factor alone that the petitioner is not entered as owner under the provisions of the Motor Vehicles Act. The ownership claimed by the petitioner is on the basis of an agreement, Annexure P-1, which the petitioner claims to be hire purchase agreement, but is infact a loan agreement and on account of this finding, the complainant is the owner and the petitioner is a financier/creditor. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">14. In Charanjit Singh Chadha's case (supra), the Apex Court considered the nature of a hire purchase agreement. In that case, the fact that there was a hire purchase agreement between the parties was an admitted fact, as would be clear from para 4 of the judgment. Question whether hire purchase agreement was in substance a loan transaction was not in issue. It was held that a hirer in a hire purchase agreement is simply paying for the use of goods and title remains with the financier, who is the owner. Reference was also made to earlier decisions of the Apex Court in Sardar Trilok Singh's case (supra) and K.A. Mathai's case (supra) and it was held that when a financier takes repossession of a vehicle, he commits no offence. In view of legal position as laid down by the Apex Court in Charanjit Singh Chadha's case (supra) and other documents, I have no difficulty in accepting the contention of the petitioner that if the petitioner is the owner and if the agreement between the parties is hire purchase agreement, he cannot be said to have committed any offence in taking possession in accordance with the agreement, but it is not so. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">First question is decided accordingly. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">15. Now, I take up second question. In my view, consequences will be different, if the transaction is a loan transaction. Under a loan transaction, the petitioner will not be the owner, but a mere creditor and the agreement would be an agreement to secure repayment of loan. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">16. Section 172 of the Contract Act (for short, the Act) deals with pledge of goods and under Section 176 of the Act, a pawnee, to whom the goods are pledged, is entitled to bring a suit and to retain in the goods as collateral security or even to sell the goods after giving a reasonable notice. Section 176 of the Act requires the pawnee to return the surplus out of proceeds of the security after recovering the loan to the pawner. The loan transaction of the present nature would be akin to a loan against hypothecation of goods. There is no doubt that in case of a pledge, the pawnee has a right, as recognised under Section 176 of the Act, to bring a suit against the pawnor and to retain the goods as security or to sell the goods pledged on giving pawnor reasonable notice of sale. This right is recognized under Section 176 of the Act. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">17. Question is whether hypothecation stands on the same footing as pledge. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">18. In </span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Central Bureau of Investigation v. Duncans Agro Industries Ltd., Calcutta, AIR 1996 SC 2452</i></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">para 27, it was observed by the Apex Court that : </span><br />
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">"When some goods are hypothecated by a person to another person, the ownership of the goods still remains with the person who has hypothecated such goods. The property in respect of which criminal branch of trust can be committed must necessarily be the property of some person other than the accused or the beneficial interest in or ownership of it must be in other person and the offender must hold such property in trust for such person or for his benefit. In a case of pledge, the pledged article belongs to some other person but the same is kept in trust by the pledgee."</ul>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">19. While the right of a pawnee to sell goods pledged goods without intervention of the Court is statutorily recognized under Section 176 of the Act, it is not so recognized under the said provision in respect of hypothecated goods and even in mercantile usage, pledge and hypothecation have different connotation and though in certain matters, a pawnee and hypothecate may stand on the same footing, I do not find any justification for taking a view that in the matter of sale without intervention of the Court, a hypothecate will stand on the same footing as a pawnee. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">20. There has been difference of opinion on the question whether hypothecation stands on the same footing as pledge in the matter of sale without intervention of the Court, I find valid reasons for making a distinction in the right of a pawnee and a hypothecatee. Permitting a hypothecate to physically repossess the hypothecated goods against the wishes of the hypothecator will enable the hypothecate to take law in his own hands, deprive the hypothecator of his defence by depriving him of the use of goods even when his claim may be that he does not owe any money. A borrower is economically in disadvantageous position and if two interpretations are possible, the one which does not defeat the rights of the borrower has to be preferred. The creditor has definitely remedy of filing suit and taking over the hypothecated goods through Court by making out a case, but a right cannot be conceded to the hypothecate to physically and forcibly take over the goods on his own unilateral decision that the hypothecator had defaulted in payment of loan. As already seen in the present case, the case of the complainant is that he was not even aware of what agreement had been signed as not even a copy thereof was given to him. The petitioner has already taken blank post- dated cheques and has already filed proceedings under the Negotiable Instruments Act. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">21. For the above reasons, I conclude that if the agreement in the present case is held to be a loan agreement and rights of the creditor are held to be those of a hypothecatee, rights of the parties under the agreement would be different. A hypothecatee, as already held, cannot take possession of the security without intervention of the Court, though he has a right to take possession or to sell the hypothecated property through Court or to give notice to the hypothecator to enforce the security. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">22. A question may further arise whether hypothecate can take over the security or acquire higher rights by putting a clause in the agreement authorising him to take over the security and sell the same without intervention of the Court. The Court cannot ignore that in these days of advertisement and consumerism, a common man is tempted to acquire luxury consumer items on account of demonstration effect in the society. On account of that instinct, there is a temptation to fall prey to advertisement for easy loans. Once easy loan is promised and dreams are shown, the financier tends to tighten the noose on the neck of the borrower by making the borrower to sign on dotted lines. Is 'freedom to contract' answer to the situation, in which a common man finds himself after signing the agreement on the dotted lines? </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">23. The above finding that the hypothecate cannot be permitted to take over the hypothecated goods under repossession clause, without intervention of the Court is also supported by events which have been taken cognizance of by the legislature, which shows that the public policy requires safeguards to be provided against arbitrary repossession clauses. The matter has been gone into in the context of hire purchase transactions. Though whether even in a hire purchase agreement, repossession clause will be valid and to what extent may be a different matter, as it has already been held that though termed as a hire purchase agreement, in the present case the transaction was a loan transaction, the developments reinforce the view that a borrower needs protection against arbitrary repossession. It may be relevant to note that the Law Commission in its 20th report, noticed the abuse and evils in relation to hire purchase agreements and adverse effects on the hirer, who is generally a weaker party to the transaction. It made its recommendations, which led to enactment of Hire Purchase Act, 1972. Though the Act was brought into force, the notification bringing the Act into force was rescinded and the effect is that the Act is not in force. Under the Act, certain restrictions are imposed on owner to take possession of goods, otherwise than through Courts. The owner can terminate the contract as per Section 18 and thereafter can take possession of the goods and adjust the loan amount against the value of the goods and has to return the surplus to the hirer. The burden of proving that the price obtained by him, if goods have been sold, was the best price which could be obtained on the date of the seizure, is on the owner under Section 17(4). Section 20 restricts the owner's right to take possession directly where half of the hire purchase price has already been paid, where price is more than 15,000/- and where 3/4th has been paid where price is less than 15,000/-. Sections 17 to 23 of the Act are as under :- </span><br />
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">"17. <i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Rights of hirer in case of seizure of goods by owner.</i> - (1) Where the owner seizes under clause (c) of section 19 the goods let under a hire- purchase agreement, the hirer may recover from the owner the amount, if any, by which the hire-purchase price falls short of the aggregate of the following amounts, namely :-</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(i) the amounts paid in respect of the hire-purchase price up to the date of seizure;</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(ii) the value of the goods on the date of seizure.</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(2) For the purposes of this section, the value of any goods on the date of seizure is the best price that can be reasonably obtained for the goods by the owner on that date less the aggregate of the following amounts, namely :-</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(i) the reasonable expenses incurred by the owner for seizing the goods;</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(ii) any amount reasonably expended by the owner on the storage, repairs or maintenance of the goods;</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(iii) (whether or not the goods have subsequently been sold or otherwise disposed of by the owner) the reasonable expenses of selling or otherwise disposing of the goods; and</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(iv) the amount spent by the owner for payment of arrears of taxes and other dues which are payable in relation to the goods under any law for the time being in force and which the hirer was liable to pay.</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(3) If the owner fails to pay the amount due from him under the provisions of this section or any portion of such amount, to the hirer within a period of thirty days from the date of notice for the payment of the said amount is served on him by the hirer the owner shall be liable to pay interest on such amount at the rate of twelve percent per annum from the date of expiry of the said period of thirty days.</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(4) Where the owner has sold the goods seized by him the onus of proving that the price obtained by him for the goods was the best price that could be reasonably obtained by him on the date of seizure shall lie upon him.</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">18. <i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Rights of owner to terminate hire-purchase agreement for default in payment of hire or unauthorised act or breach of express conditions.</i> - (1) Where a hirer makes more than one default in the payment of hire as provided in the hire-purchase agreement then, subject to the provisions of section 21 and after giving the hirer notice in writing of not less than -</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(i) one week, in a case where the hire is payable at weekly or lesser intervals; and</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(ii) two weeks, in any other case, the owner shall be entitled to terminate the agreement by giving the hirer notice of termination in writing :</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">Provided that if the hirer pays or tenders to the owner the hire in arrears together with such interest thereon as may be payable under the terms of the agreement before the expiry of the said period of one week or, as the case may be, two weeks, the owner shall not be entitled to terminate the agreement.</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(2) Where a hirer -</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(a) does any act with regard to the goods to which the agreement relates which is inconsistent with any of the terms of the agreement; or</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(b) breaks an express condition which provides that, on the breach thereof, the owner may terminate the agreement,</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">the owner shall subject to the provisions of the section 22, be entitled to terminate the agreement by giving the hirer notice of termination in writing.</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">19. <i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Rights of owner on termination.</i> - Where a hire-purchase agreement is terminated under this Act, then the owner shall be entitled, -</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(a) to retain the hire which has already been paid and to recover the arrears of hire due :</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">Provided that when such goods are seized by the owner, the retention of hire recovery of the arrears of hire due shall be subject to the provisions of section 17;</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(b) subject to the conditions specified in clauses (a) and (b) of sub-section (2) of section 10, to forfeit the initial deposit, if so provided in the agreement;</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(c) subject to the provisions of section 17 and section 20 and subject to any contract to the contrary, to enter the premises of the hirer and seize the goods;</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(d) subject to the provisions of section 21 and section 22, to recover the possession of the goods by application under section 20 or by suit;</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(e) without prejudice to the provisions of sub-section (2) of section 14 and of section 15, to damages for non-delivery of the goods, from the date on which termination is effective, to the date on which the goods are delivered to or seized by the owner.</ul>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">20. </span><i style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Restriction on owner's right to recover possession of goods otherwise than through court.</i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"> - (1) Where goods have been let under a hire-purchase agreement and the statutory proportion of the hire-purchase price has been paid, whether in pursuance of the judgment of a court or otherwise, or tendered by or on behalf of the hirer or any surety, the owner shall not enforce any right to recover possession of the goods from the hirer otherwise than in accordance with sub-section (3) or by suit. </span><br />
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Explanation.</i> - In this section, "statutory proportion" means, -</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(i) one-half, where the hire-purchase price is less than fifteen thousand rupees; and</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(ii) three-fourths, where the hire-purchase price is not less than fifteen thousand rupees :</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">Provided that in the case of motor vehicles as defined in the Motor Vehicles Act, 1939 (4 of 1939), "statutory proportion" shall mean, -</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(i) one-half, where the hire-purchase price is less than five thousand rupees;</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(ii) three-fourths, where the hire-purchase price is not less than five thousand rupees but less than fifteen thousand rupees;</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(iii) there-fourths or such higher proportion not exceeding nine-tenths as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official gazette, specify where the hire-purchase price is not less than fifteen thousand rupees.</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(2) If the owner recovers possession of goods in contravention of the provisions of sub-section (1), the hire-purchase agreement, if not previously terminated, shall terminate, and-</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(a) the hirer shall be released from all liability under the agreement and shall be entitled to recover from the owner all sums paid by the hirer under the agreement or under any security given by him in respect thereof; and</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(b) the surety shall be entitled to recover from the owner all sums paid by him under the contract of guarantee or under any security given by him in respect thereof.</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(3) Where, by virtue of the provisions of sub-section (1), the owner if precluded from enforcing a right to recover possession of the goods, he may make an application for recovery of possession of the goods to any court having jurisdiction to entertain a suit for the same relief.</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(4) The provisions of this section shall not apply in any case in which the hirer has terminated the agreement by virtue of any right vested in him.</ul>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">21. </span><i style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Relief against termination for non-payment of hire.</i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"> - Where the owner, after he has terminated the hire-purchase agreement in accordance with the provisions of sub-section (1) of section 18, institutes a suit or makes an application against the hirer for the recovery of the goods, and at the hearing of the suit or application, the hirer pays or tenders to the owner the hire in arrears, together with such interest thereon as may be payable under the terms of the agreement and the costs of the suit or application incurred by the owner and complies with such other conditions, if any, as the court may think fit to impose, the court may, in lieu of making a decree or order for specific delivery, pass an order relieving the hirer against the termination, and thereupon the hirer shall continue in possession of the goods as if the agreement had not been terminated. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">22. </span><i style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Relief against termination for unauthorised act or breach of express condition</i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">. - Where a hire-purchase agreement has been terminated in accordance with the provisions of clause (a) or clause (b) of sub-section (2) of section 18, no suit or application by the owner against the hire for the recovery of the goods shall lie unless and until the owner has served on the hirer a notice in writing, - </span><br />
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(a) specifying the particular breach or act complained of; and</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(b) if the breach or act is capable of remedy, requiring the hirer to remedy it, and the hirer fails, within a period of thirty days from the date of the service of the notice, to remedy the breach or act if it is capable of remedy.</ul>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">23. </span><i style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Obligation of owner to supply copies and information.</i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"> - (1) It shall be the duty of the owner to supply, free of cost, a true copy of the hire- purchase agreement, signed by the owner, - </span><br />
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(a) to the hirer, immediately after execution of the agreement; and</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(b) where there is a contract of guarantee, to the surety, on demand made at any time before the final payment has been made under the agreement.</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(2) It shall also be the duty of the owner, at any time before the final payment has been made under the hire-purchase agreement, to supply to the hirer, within fourteen days after the owner receives a request in writing from the hirer in this behalf and the hirer tenders to the owner the sum of one rupee for expenses, a statement signed by the owner or his agent showing -</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(a) the amount paid by or on behalf of the hirer;</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(b) the amount which has become due under the agreement but remains unpaid, and the date upon which each unpaid instalment became due, and the amount of each such instalment; and</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(c) the amount which is to become payable under the agreement, and the date or the mode of determining the date upon which each future instalment is to become payable, and the amount of each such instalment.</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(3) Where there is a failure without reasonable cause to carry out the duties imposed by sub-section (1), or sub-section (2), then, while the default continues, -</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(a) the owner shall not be entitled to enforce the agreement against the hirer or to enforce any contract of guarantee relating to the agreement, or to enforce any right to recover the goods from the hirer; and</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(b) no security given by the hirer in respect of money payable under the agreement or given by a surety in respect of money payable under such a contract of guarantee as aforesaid shall be enforceable against the hirer or the surety by any holder thereof,</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">and, if the default continues for a period of two months, the owner shall be punishable with fine which may extend to two hundred rupees.</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">(4) Nothing in sub-section (3) shall be construed as affecting the right of a third party to enforce against the owner or hirer or against both the owner and the hirer any charge or encumbrance to which the goods covered by the hire-purchase agreement are subject."</ul>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">24. In </span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Central Inland Water Transport Corpn. Ltd. v. Brojo Nath Ganguly, AIR 1986 SC 1571</i></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">, it was held that an unconscionable term in a contract will be void. In paras 78 to 82 of the said judgment, it was observed that though in 19th century, freedom of contract was the rule, Courts developed devices for refusing to implement certain agreements on the ground of inequality of bargaining power. The relevant part of the judgment is extracted below :- </span><br />
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">"78. Although certain types of the contracts were illegal or void, as the case may be, at Common Law, for instance, those contrary to public policy or to commit a legal wrong such as a crime or a tort, the general rule was of freedom of contract, This rule was given full play in the nineteenth century on the ground that the parties were the best judges of their own interests, and if they freely and voluntarily entered into a contract, the only function of the Court was to enforce it. It was considered immaterial that one party was economically in a stronger bargaining position than the other; and if such a party introduced qualifications and exceptions to his liability in clauses which are today known as "exemption clauses" and the other party accepted them, then full effect would be given to what the parties agreed. Equity, however, interfered in many cases of harsh or unconscionable bargains, such as, in the law relating to penalties, forfeitures and mortgages. It also interfered to set aside harsh or unconscionable contracts for salvage services rendered to a vessel in distress, or unconscionable contracts with expectant heirs in which a person, usually a money-lender, gave ready cash to the heir in return for the property which he expects to inherit and thus to get such property at a gross undervalue. It also interfered with harsh or unconscionable contracts entered into with poor and ignorant persons who had not received independent advice (See Chitty or Contracts, Twenty-fifth Edition, Volume I, paragraphs 4 and 516).</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">79. Legislation has also interfered in many cases to prevent one party to a contract from taking undue or unfair advantage of the other. Instances of this type of legislation are usury laws, debt relief laws and laws regulating the hours or work and conditions of service of workmen and their unfair discharge from service, and control orders directing a party to sell a particular essential commodity to another.</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">80. In this connection, it is useful to note what Chitty has to say about the old ideas of freedom of contract in modern times. The relevant passages are to be found in Chitty on Contracts, Twenty-fifth Edition, Volume I, in paragraph 4, and are as follows :</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">"These ideas have to a large extent lost their appeal today. 'Freedom of contract', it has been said, 'is a reasonable social ideal only to the extent that equality of bargaining power between contracting parties can be assumed, and no injury is done to the economic interests of the community at large.' Freedom of contract is of little value when one party has no alternative between accepting a set of terms proposed by the other or doing without the goods or services offered. Many contracts entered into by public utility undertakings and others take the form of a set of terms fixed in advance by one party and not open to discussion by the other. There are called 'contracts adhesion' by French lawyers. Traders frequently contract, not on individually negotiated terms, but on those contained in a standard form of contract settled by a trade association. And the terms of an employee's contract of employment may be determined by agreement between his trade union and his employer, or by a statutory scheme of employment. Such transactions are nevertheless contracts notwithstanding that freedom of contract is to a great extent lacking.</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">Where freedom of contract is absent, the disadvantages to consumers or members of the public have to some extent been offset by administrative procedures for consultation and by legislation. Many statutes introduce terms into contracts which the parties are forbidden to exclude, or declare that certain provisions in a contract shall be void. And the Courts have developed a number of devices for refusing to implement exemption clauses imposed by the economically stronger party on the weaker, although they have not recognised in themselves any general power (except by statute) to declare broadly that an exemption clause will not be enforced unless it is reasonable. Again, more recently, certain of the Judges appear to have recognised the possibility of relief from contractual obligations on the ground of 'inequality of bargaining power'."</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">What the French call "contracts adhesion", the American call "adhesion contracts" or "contracts of adhesion". An "adhesion contract" is defined in Black's Law Dictionary Fifth Edition, at page 38 as follows :</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">"'Adhesion contract'</i>. Standardized contract form offered to consumers of goods and services on essentially 'take it or leave it' basis without affording consumer realistic opportunity to bargain and under such conditions that consumer cannot obtain desired product or services except by acquiescing in form contract. Distinctive feature of adhesion contract is that weaker party has no realistic choice as to its term. Not every such contract is unconscionable."</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">81. The position under the American Law is stated in "Reinstatement of the Law - Second" as adopted and promulgated by the American Law Institute, Volume II which deals with the law of contracts, in section 208 at page 107, as follows :</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">S. 208. Unconscionable Contract or Term</i> -</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">If a contract or term thereof is unconscionable at the time the contract is made a Court may refuse to enforce the contract, or may enforce the remainder of the contract without the unconscionable term, or may so limit the application of any unconscionable term as to avoid any unconscionable result."</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">In the Comments given under that section it is stated at page 107 :</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">"Like the obligation of good faith and fair dealing (S. 205), <i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">the policy against unconscionable contracts or terms applies to a wide variety of types of conduct</i>. The determination that a contract or term is or is not unconscionable is made in the light of its setting, purpose and effect. Relevant factors include weaknesses in the contracting process like those involved in more specific rules as to contractual capacity, fraud and other invalidating causes; the policy also overlaps with rules which render particular bargains or terms unenforceable on grounds of public polity. <i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Policing against unconscionable contracts or terms has sometimes been accomplished by</i> adverse construction of language, by manipulation of the rules of offer and acceptance or <i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">by determinations that the clause is contrary to public policy</i>, or to the dominant purpose of the contract. Uniform Commercial Code Section 2-302 Comment 1...... A bargain is not unconscionable merely because the parties to it are unequal in bargaining position, nor even because the inequality results in an allocation of risks to the weaker party. <i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">But gross inequality of bargaining power, together with terms unreasonably favourable to the stronger party</i>, may confirm indications that the transaction involved elements of deception or compulsion, or may show that the weaker party had no meaningful choice, no real alternative, or did not in fact assent or appear to assent to the unfair terms." (Emphasis supplied)</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">There is a statute in the United States called the Universal Commercial Code which is applicable to contracts relating to sales of goods. Though this statute is inapplicable to contracts not involving sales of goods, it has proved very influential in, what are called in the United States, "non-sales" cases. It has many times been used either by analogy or because it was felt to embody a general accepted social attitude of fairness going beyond its statutory application to sales of goods. In the Reporter's Note to the said section 208, it is stated at page 112 :</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">"It is to be emphasized that a contract of adhesion is not unconscionable <i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">per se</i>, and that all unconscionable contracts are not contracts of adhesion. Nonetheless, <i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">the more standardized the agreement and the less a party may bargain meaningfully, the more susceptible the contract or a term will be to a claim of unconscionability."</i>(Emphasis supplied)</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">The position has been thus summed up by John R. Peden in "the Law of Unjust Contracts" published by Butterworths in 1982, at pages 28-29 :</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">"............Unconscionability represents the end of a cycle commencing with the Aristotelian concept of justice and the Roman Law <i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">laesio enormis</i>, which in turn formed the basis for the medieval church's usury. These philosophies permeated the exercise, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, of the Chancery Court's discretionary powers under which it upset all kinds of unfair transactions. Subsequently the movement towards economic individualism in the nineteenth century hardened the exercise of these powers by emphasising the freedom of the parties to make their own contract. While the principle of <i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">pacta sunt servanda</i> held dominance, the consensual theory still recognized exceptions where one party was overborne by a fiduciary, or entered a contract under duress or as the result of fraud. However, these exceptions were limited and had to be strictly proved.</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">It is suggested that the judicial and legislative trend during the last 30 years in both civil and common law jurisdiction has almost brought the wheel full circle. Both courts and Parliaments have provided greater protection for weaker parties from harsh contracts. In several jurisdictions this included a general power to grant relief from unconscionable contracts, thereby providing a launching point from which the courts have the opportunity to develop a modern doctrine of unconscionability. American decisions on article 2.302 of the UCC have already gone some distance into this new arena......" The expression <i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">"laesio enormis"</i> used in the above passage refers to <i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">"laesio ultra dimidium vel enormis"</i> which in Roman Law meant the injury sustained by one of the parties to an onerous contract when he had been overreached by the other to the extent of more than one-half of the value of the subject matter, as for example, when a vendor had not received half the value of property sold, or the purchaser had paid more than double value. The maxim <i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">"pacta sunt servanda"</i> referred to in the above passage means "contracts are to be kept".</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">82. It would appear from certain recent English cases that the Courts in that country have also begun to recognize the possibility of an unconscionable bargain which could be brought about by economic duress even between parties who may not in economic terms be situate differently (See, for instance, Occidental Worldwide Investment Corpn. v. Skibs A/s Avanti (1976) 1 Lloyd's Rep. 293, North Ocean Shipping Co. Ltd. v. Hyundai Construction Co. Ltd., (1979) QB 705, Pao On v. Lau Yin Long (1980) AC 614 and Universe Tankships of Monrovia v. International Transport Workers Federation (1981) ICR 129, reversed in (1982) 2 WLR 803, and the commentary on these cases in Chitty on Contracts, Twenty-fifth Edition, Volume I, paragraph 486)."</ul>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">25. Learned counsel for the petitioner relied on a judgment of this Court in </span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Nirmal Singh Kandola v. State of Punjab and others, Civil Writ Petition No. 16803 of 1998, decided on 6.9.1999</i></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">, wherein Section 32(G) of the State Financial Corporation Act, 1951, which authorised issue of certificate for the recovery of the amount due was upheld repelling the contention that conferment of power on such a creditor was against the principles of natural justice </span><i style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">'Nemo Judis In Cause Sua'</i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"> (a person could not be a judge on his own cause) will not apply. In my view, the power conferred on public authority under a statute stands on different footing than right conferred on an individual under an agreement. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">26. I, therefore, hold that a hypothecated cannot be allowed to take possession of hypothecated property without intervention of the Court, particularly when there is unequal bargaining power, irrespective of the agreement to the contrary. In the present case, I hold that repossession clause is void. The second question is answered accordingly by holding that the right of the petitioner was to be proceed against the complainant only through Court and not to take over the vehicle by force. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">27. Now I take up third question, namely, whether clause 4 in the agreement enabling the financier and permitting him to forfeit the payments already made is valid. In my view, such an agreement would be void. Section 74 of the Act provides compensation for breach of contract. The party complaining breach of contract is entitled to receive from the party, who breaches the contract, reasonable compensation not exceeding the amount named, but it well settled that if the amount named is by way of the penalty, having no nexus to the actual loss suffered, the same cannot be enforced. Reference is made to a judgment of the Supreme Court in </span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Fateh Chand v. Balkishan Das, AIR 1963 SC 1405</i></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">. In </span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Bridge v. Campbell Discount Co. Ltd., 1962 AC 600 (1962(1) All ER 385)</i></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">, such a clause was held to be not a genuine pre estimate of damages, but a penalty. Similar view was taken in </span><b style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Galbraith v. Mitchenall Estates Ltd., 1964(2) All ER 653</i></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">. I am, therefore, of the view that the clause permitting forfeiture of any amount paid will be void. Any amount paid by the debtor will have to be accounted for and credited to his account and the right of the creditor is only to recover the balance amount. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">28. Now, I take up question No. 4 as to the remedy of the complainant against unjustified repossession by a financier. No doubt, the borrower will have a remedy of going to a civil Court or a consumer Court. Is the remedy of criminal law barred ? Once, it is held that the creditor is not the owner irrespective of the label put on the agreement as a creditor, the financier cannot take over the property without intervention of the Court, the financier will be criminally liable for forcibly taking away the property. What offence is involved may be decided from case to case. Complaint filed in the present case is held to be maintainable, though what offences are involved will be examined by the trial Court. In the present case, the complainant has already been given the vehicle on superdari and in my view the complainant is entitled to get the vehicle on superdari in such a case. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">29. Finally, I take up the fifth question whether the proceedings are liable to be quashed. In view of the above discussion, proceedings are not liable to be quashed at this stage. The petitioner will be free to contest the matter in the trial Court in accordance with law. Prayer for quashing is rejected, subjected to the observations made in the latter part of the judgment. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">30. I may now summarise my conclusions as follows :- </span><br />
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">A) A hire-purchase agreement may in substance be a loan transaction and the label of such an agreement is not conclusive. It is open to the Court to determine whether a particular agreement is a loan transaction or a hire- purchase agreement. The parameters to be applied are laid down, <i style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">inter alia</i>, in the judgment of the Supreme Court in Sundaram Finance Ltd.'s case (supra). In the present case, the agreement though termed as hire-purchase agreement, is held to be a loan agreement for the reasons already mentioned.</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">B) In a loan agreement for financing goods on hypothecated basis, the creditor cannot forcibly repossess the hypothecated item, though he can enforce the security through the Court.</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">C) If a specific clause is inserted in an agreement authorising repossession of a vehicle or any other goods by the hypothecatee, such a clause may be unconscionable, unless otherwise shown by the hypothecate and such a clause inserted in the present case is held to be void. In the present agreement, clause 4 and clause 7 permitting forfeiture of instalments already paid will be deemed to be void.</ul>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 15px; padding: 0px;">D) Forcible repossession without intervention of the Court may involve commission of an offence and what offence has been committed will depend on facts of an individual case. The judgments of the Supreme Court in hire purchase cases holding that in a hire purchase agreement, the owner cannot be guilty of theft of his own property, will not be applicable to cases where the transaction is, in substance, a loan transaction, as in a loan transaction, the ownership will be of the borrower and the principle applicable to a hire purchase agreement will not apply.</ul>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Though in view of above conclusions, this petition for quashing is liable to be dismissed, if the petitioner makes a statement before the trial Court that he will proceed for enforcing his right through the Court and will not insist on forcible repossession, the trial Court will drop the proceedings having regard to facts and circumstances of the case. This petition is disposed of accordingly. </span><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Order accordingly</span><br />
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">--</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Thanks to :-- law.geekupd8</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">---</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 22px;">Haider Ajaz (Advocate)</span>Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-70001199753604541222013-06-22T09:51:00.002+05:302013-07-20T12:01:55.499+05:30BAIL BOND<br />
IN THE COURT OF ____________________________<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Case No.___________.<br />
<br />
BOND OR BAIL BOND FOR ATTENDANCE BEFORE OFFICER IN<br />
CHARGE OF THE POLICE STATION OR COURT.<br />
<br />
I, (Name) _________________________________________________<br />
Age _______ R/o. ____________________________________________________<br />
having been arrested or detained without warrant by the officer incharge<br />
or Police Station<br />
________________________________( or having been brought before the court of<br />
________________________________<br />
changed with the offences on ____________________________________________<br />
and required to give surety for, my attendance before such officer or court and required on<br />
condition, that I shall attend such officer or court on everyday on which any investigation or trial is<br />
held with regard to such charges and in case of making default therein, I bind myself to forfeit to the<br />
Government the sum of Rs. ________________<br />
In words Rs. _________________________ Dated this ________________________<br />
day of _________________200<br />
____________________________<br />
(Signature of the accused.)<br />
<br />
--<br />
Haider Ajaz<br />
AdvocateAdv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-78727667655684915122013-06-22T09:27:00.000+05:302016-08-02T23:20:44.796+05:30<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-size: 24.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">MUSLIM PERSONAL
LAW</span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: 24.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">--
AN EXPOSITION</span></b><o:p></o:p></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">BY ATHAR HUSAIN</span></b><o:p></o:p></div>
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<b><i>Published
by the All <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region> Personal
Law Bpard,</i></b><br />
<st1:placetype w:st="on"><b><i>Camp</i></b></st1:placetype><b><i> <st1:placename w:st="on">Office</st1:placename>, Nawatu Ulama, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Lucknow</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">India</st1:country-region></st1:place></i></b><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9175824131530951491" name="inheritance"><b><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Inheritance</span></b></a><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Inheritance is an important branch of the family law of the
Muslims. The death of a person brings about a transfer of most of his rights to
persons who are called his heirs and representatives. The transferable rights
include all rights to property, usufruct, many dependant rights, such as debts
and [unrecognisable word] in action, rights to compensation, etc., and the
transmissible obligations are those capable of being satisfied out of the
estate of the deceased. What is left after the payment of funeral expenses and
the discharge of his debts and obligations is to be distributed according to
the law of inheritance.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The rules regulating inheritance are based on the principle
that the deceased's property should devolve on those who by reason of
consanguinity or affinity have the strongest claim to be benefitted by it and
in proportion to the strength of such claim. There is no distinction in the
Muhammadan law between movable and immovable property or between ancestral or
self-acquired property. There is no such thing as a Joint Muslim family nor
does the law recognise a[nything] in common [with] a Muslim family.birthright
is not recognised and the right of an heir apparent or presumptive comes into
existence for the first time [up]on the death of the ancestor to which he would
succeed.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">According to the Sunni law, the expectant right of an
heir-apparent cannot pass by succession to his heir, nor can it pass by bequest
to a legatee under his Will, nor can it be the subject of transfer of release.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9175824131530951491" name="obstacles"></a><b>Obstacles to succession</b><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">There are certain impediments to succession: (1) Slavery,
because a slave has no right to property. (2) Homicide, a person killing
another does not inherit from the latter, (3) Difference of religion, (4)
Difference of territorial jurisdiction either natural or constructive.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9175824131530951491" name="hanafi"></a><b>The Hanafi Law of Succession</b><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Sunni law recognises three classes of heirs:</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(1)</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ashabul faraiz -</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-The
sharers whose shares or proportions have been fixed in the Quran. They take
their specific portions and the residue is then divided among the Agnates.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(2) The</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Asabah</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">or</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Agnates</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, also called
by English writers as</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Residuaries.</span></b><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(3)</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dhauil-arham</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">or Cognates or Uterine Relations. They are also called
Distant kindred i.e. relations who do not fall in the category of sharers or
Agnates.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9175824131530951491" name="sharers"></a><b>The Sharers</b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><b><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">sharers</span></i></b><b><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></i></b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">or</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ashabul-faraiz</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">are altogether twelve in number - four males and eight
females.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The four males are: (1) the father, (2) the
grandfather or lineal male ascendant (when not excluded), (3) the uterine
brothers, and (4) the husband.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The females are: [the] (1) wife, (2) daughter, (3) son's
daughter or the daughter of a lineal male descendant howsoever low, (4) mother,
(5) true grandmother, (6) full sister, (7) consanguine sister i.e. half sister
on the father's side, and (8) uterine sister i.e. half-sisters on the mother's
side.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Hanafis divide the ascendants for purposes of succession
into two classes viz., true and false. [The] true grandfather is an ascendant
in whose line of relationship to the deceased no female intervenes. For
example, a father's father is a true grandfather, whereas a mother's father is
a false grandfather. A true grandmother is a female ancestor in whose line of
relationship with the deceased no false grandfather intervenes. Thus a mother’s
mother or a father’s father’s mother are true grandmothers, whereas mother’s
father’s mother is a false grandmother.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9175824131530951491" name="shares"></a><b>The shares of the sharers</b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. Father: gets 1/6th when the deceased leaves a son or
son's son or any other male line descendant.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Father's father. or any other lineal male ascendant gets
the share of the father i.e. 1/6th. </span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Uterine brother: When only one, and no child or the child
of a son, father or true grandfather...... 1/6th.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">When two or more and no child or the child of a son or
father or true grandfather ...... 1/3rd.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. Husband: </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(1) When the deceased leaves a
child or the child of a son howsoever low...... 1/4th. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(2) Without them ...... 1/2
half.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. Widow : </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(1) When the deceased has left
no child or the child of a son -1/4th </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">When there is no child or the
child of a son-1/8th</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6. Daughter : </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(1) When only one and no
son so as to render a residuary - 1/2.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(2) When two or more-2/3rd</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7. Sons: </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(1) When only one and no child
or sons daughter : son or other male lineal descendant - 1/2. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(2) When two or more and no
child or son's son or other male lineal descendant-2/3. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(3) When co-existing with one
daughter and no son or son's son or other male lineal descendant-1/6. When
there are two daughters, the son's daughters are excluded unless there happens
to be with them a lineal male descendant of the same or lower degree. The son's
daughters or the daughters of any lineal</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">male descendant are excluded by
a son or by a lineal male descendant nearer in degree than themselves. </span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8. Mother:</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(1) When co-existing with a
child of the propositus [</span><b><span style="font-size: 7.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">the person
immediately concerned</span></b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">] or a child of
his or her son, or two or more brothers and sisters whether consanguine or
uterine-1/6. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(2) When not-1/3.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9. The grandmother - However high when not excluded by a
nearer true female ancestor-1/6.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10. Full sisters - </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(I) When only one and no son or
son's son, true grandfather, daughter, son's daughter or brother-1/2.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(2) When two or more and no such
excluders-2/3. </span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">11. Consanguine sisters -- </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(1) When only one and no
excluder as above - 1/2.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(2) When one, and co-existing with one full
sister-1/6. </span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(3) When two or more and no such excluder-1/3. </span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">12. Uterine sisters - Get the same share as uterine brothers
- 1/6.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">All these shares are specified
in the Quran. If it be found on assigning respective shares of the sharers that
total of the shares exceeds unity, the share of each sharer is proportionally
diminished by reducing the fractional shares to a common denominator and
increasing the denominator so as to make it equal to the sum of numerators.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9175824131530951491" name="asabah"></a><b>Asabah or Residuaries</b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">This class of heirs is called asaba or residuaries because
they take the residue after such of the sharers as are not excluded have been
satisfied. They are divided into three classes: </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(1) Residuaries in their own
right;</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(2) Residuaries in another’s
right, and</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(3) Residuaries together with
another.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9175824131530951491" name="residuaries"></a><b>Residuaries in their own right</b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">To this class belong all [the] male relations in the chain
of wholerelationship, no female enters. They are divided into four subclasses:</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(1) Parts of the deceased, i.e. his sons and grandsons
howsoever low.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(2) His roots i.e. the
ascendants, his father and true grandfather, how high soever.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(3) The offspring of his father
viz. full brothers and consanguine brothers and their lineal male
descendants. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(4) Parts or offspring of the
true grandfather, how high soever, i.e., lineal male descendants, however
remote, of lineal male ascendants, however remote.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9175824131530951491" name="receiving"></a><b>Receiving another's rights</b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Residuaries in another's right are those females who as
sharers are entitled to one-half or two-thirds and who become residuaries if
they co-exist with their brothers. For example, if the heirs of a deceased
person are his widow, brother and sister, the widow will get one-fourth, and of
the remaining three-fourths the brother will get two portions and the sister
one portion as residuaries. Residuary together with another is a female heir
who becomes residuary because of her co-existing with another female heir, for
instance, where there is a sister with a daughter.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">If there be no residuary, the residue returns to the sharers
by consanguinity in proportion to their shares.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9175824131530951491" name="distant"></a><b>Distant kindred</b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The next class of heirs are known as</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dhauil-arham</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">or distant kindred. They include the relations who are
neither sharers not residuaries; they inherit only if there are no sharers or
residuaries. Shafi'is and Malikis do not treat them as heirs at all. The
distant kindred are divided into four subclasses:</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(1) The offspring of the deceased viz</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(a) the
children of daughters and their descendants</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(b) The children of son's
daughters and their descendants howsoever low.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(2) The root of the deceased or
his ascendants</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(a) Male
ascendants however remote, in whose line of relations to the deceased there
occurs female and who are therefore called false grandfathers. e. g. [a]
deceased's mother's father [or a] father's mother's father. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(b) Female ancestors technically
called false grandmothers</span>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(3) The offspring of his parents
viz. the daughters of full brothers and of full brother's sons, sister's
children. </span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(4) The offspring of grandparents and other ascendants
however remote.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(a) daughter of
half paternal uncles by the father.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(b) paternal aunts, full
consanguine or uterine and their children.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(c) daughters of full paternal
uncles and their sons. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(d) maternal uncles and aunts
and their children. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(e) paternal uncles by the
mother.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The general order of succession
is according to their classification, the first class occupying [the] first and
so on.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Among the individuals of the various classes, succession is
regulated by proximity to the deceased, the nearer in degree always excluding
the more remote.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9175824131530951491" name="exclusion"></a><b>Exclusion</b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In order to regulate the number of relations who might
inherit together, the doctrine of</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">hujub</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">or exclusion is applied. The son, father, husband,
daughter, mother and the wife are never totally excluded. Exclusion is based on
two principles. </span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(1) A person
who is related to the deceased through another is excluded by the latter, for
example, the father excludes the grandfather, brother and sister in the sun
exclude the grandson and this principle is extended to the residuaries so as to
give preference to the proximity of degree, for instance, a son excludes
another son's son. Secondly, the closest in blood excludes the others. A
relation of full blood always inherits in preference to a relation by the
father only. Thus a brother excludes a consanguine brother or sister. There is
an exception to the first rule, namely that the mother does not exclude
brothers and sisters and the second rule is subject to the exception that
uterine relations are not excluded on that ground. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(2) Exclusion may sometimes be
partial. There is also a general rule that when the deceased leaves behind a
male and a female heir of the same class and degree, the latter will get half
of the former.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Inheritance
of the Grandson</b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A very wrong
impression has somehow gained ground that Islam denies [an] inheritance to a
grandson. Islam does not deny [an] inheritance to him. [However,] in certain
circumstances he is excluded by a nearer heir, like [a] father of the grandson.
There are 26 types of situations in which inheritance in varying degrees can
reach a grandson and a grandfather. They are given below.</span><br />
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Note: </b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In the columns
where it has been recorded that the grandfather will get 1/6th and [the] rest
in the presence of daughters and granddaughters, it means that after giving the
allotted shares to daughters and the granddaughters, the grandfather will get
the rest of the share plus 1/6th of the total inheritance.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Where it is
written that there is [a] difference of opinion about the share of the
grandfather in the presence of real and step-brothers and sisters, it means
that the difference of opinion is about the extent of the share and not about
the inheritance itself.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Where total
joint is written in the column of the grandson it means that all [of] the
grandsons will get equal shares. This chart will show that a grandfather
inherits a grandson in twenty-five eventualities and is excluded only in one
situation, i.e., in the presence of the father of the grandson. Likewise a
grandson inherits from the grandfather in twenty-five situations and is
excluded only in one situation, i.e., in the presence of his father.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">It is in one
and only one situation that a grandson is excluded from inheritance i.e., in
the presence of his father but much has been made by the opponents of the</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sharia</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">law and
votaries of a common civil code. </span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">They voice the
following arguments:</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(1)
A grandson, who is excluded only in the presence of his father, is likened to
an orphan and Islam has said so much in support of orphans. The grandson in
question is certainly not an orphan and there is [a] big difference between
[the] care of orphans in general and [the] right of inheritance [of] a
property.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(2) It is said
that a grandson has been deprived in the presence of other sons of the
grandfather, i. e., uncles of the grandson, and if both the grandfather and the
grandson have their own children, they are alike in situation but Islam gives
[a] share to a grandfather from the property of the deceased grandson but not
vice versa. This also is a fallacious argument [that] is based on wrong
assumptions. In</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ayat-e-Mirath,</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">the Quran has
used the plural word</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Aulad</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">and</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Abwain. </span></i><o:p></o:p></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Aulad</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">applies to sons
as well as to grandsons. Likewise,</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Abwain</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">applies to
[the] father but it equally applies to [the] grandfather. In [the] case [where]
the father of a grandson has died, the grandson represents him in the matter of
inheritence.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Those
interested in detailed arguments may see the brochure of Qazi Abdul Rarzaq
Mazahari published by the All India Personal Law Board, <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Bombay</st1:place></st1:city>.</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9175824131530951491" name="table_of_sharers"></a><o:p></o:p></div>
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Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-48912553179575634382013-06-22T09:25:00.001+05:302013-06-22T09:25:41.382+05:30Income Tax Returns and Related Issues<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Lucida Grande', Verdana, 'Lucida Sans Regular', 'Lucida Sans Unicode', Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12.727272033691406px; line-height: 18.99147605895996px; text-align: justify;">
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To start with Income Tax Return we should understand first everything about a PAN card:</div>
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<strong>1. What is a PAN Card?</strong></div>
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The full form of PAN is: Permanent Account Number. This is a unique ten digit alphanumeric number provided by the Income tax department to each applicant. This is a sort of Financial Identity of the person to whom that that card belongs to.</div>
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<strong>2. What dose the Characters in the PAN number stands for?</strong></div>
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A PAN card contains TEN characters which are alphanumeric, would like to educate you all that they are not random. A typical PAN is AEZPK0967L, in this the first three characters are ‘AEZ’ which are alphabetic series running from AAA to ZZZ, the fourth character of the PAN is ‘P’ in the above example which means ‘Individual’, ‘F’ stands for Firm, ‘C’ stands for Company and ‘H’ stands for HUF (Hindu Undivided Family), ‘A’ for Association of Persons (AOP), ‘T’ for Trust etc. The fifth character in the PAN No represents the first character of the surname of the PAN holder, now the numeric numbers in the PAN represents sequential number starting from 0001 to 9999. The last character in the above example is ‘L’ which represents a alphabetic check digit. For us to understand and remember is that we should check our PAN numbers with fourth and fifth character as they represent your status and surname. In case of any discrepancy we should immediately bring it in the notice of the issuing authority.</div>
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<strong>3. Just having a PAN number means that I have to pay Tax?</strong></div>
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No it’s not that, paying tax depends upon the annual income of an individual.</div>
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<strong>4. How should I get my data corrected / updated in my PAN Card?</strong></div>
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There is a form called as CSF form which needs to be filled up and you need to tick over the left box which ever is applicable. Further you need to submit the supporting documents to support your request for correction in the records.</div>
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<strong>5. I am a married lady now, I have my PAN card with my maiden surname, now I want to get the same changed/updated to my husband’s surname, what should I do?</strong></div>
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It’s a very old tradition that the lady changes her maiden surname after her marriage, to change the surname from maiden name to husband’s surname the married lady needs to submit a correction form along with a proof of marriage and the valid documents are: marriage certificate, invitation card either side, publication in the newspaper. The PAN number remains the same only the surname changes in the new card.</div>
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<strong>6. Why a lady has to mention her father’s name in the PAN application form?</strong></div>
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The reason to have father’s name always over the PAN card even for married ladies is that a married women’s status can change any time due to the following reasons : divorce taking place, death of husband, remarriage of the women, not changing the surname at all even after her marriage.</div>
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Therefore to identify her always it’s better to have the father’s name over the PAN card rather than the husband’s name.</div>
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<strong>7. I am a divorced lady now, can I get back my maiden surname in the legal documents such as Passport, PAN etc.</strong></div>
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Yes you can do so; first of all you need to get the final divorced decree from the court, then the very first step towards getting back your maiden name is to apply for updated PAN card with the support of your divorce decree, this would be the starting of getting back all other legal documents into your maiden name.</div>
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<strong>These were some queries related to PAN Card which are most commonly being asked, now moving forward about the ITR matter: (Salary Class & Self Employed Category)</strong></div>
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<strong>1. Why should I file an ITR?</strong></div>
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Filing an ITR (Income Tax Return) is very important for every citizen as it’s a document which provide an information about your total annual income for the previous year, and if it exceeded the maximum amount them it become necessary to file your return, and you shall get the benefits of any tax paid in excess as a refund on the basis of your annual savings etc. In short it is your Financial CV.</div>
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<strong>2. What’ll happen if I do not file my ITR return at all?</strong></div>
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Not filling your ITR is an offence U/s 276-CC of the Income Tax Act, 1961, howsoever income is getting taxed should file an ITR without any default.</div>
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<strong>3. I am getting Form 16 from my office, isn’t it sufficient enough?</strong></div>
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No, it’s not sufficient enough as its not providing the complete picture of your income, its just showing your salary income, you may have a rental income from somewhere for example house property, your interest income from your savings or fixed deposits in the banks or post office. Hence, to cover all the area and to compute your actual total income of a given year you need to file an ITR for that.</div>
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<strong>4. What dose FY or AY stands for I completely get confused when some account personnel’s talks to me in these terms in my office?</strong></div>
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I won’t provide you with the full forms or exact explanations of these terms, rather I shall try to make you learn the terms in a very easy way:</div>
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FY = foregone year or days gone by or in short previous year.</div>
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AY = evaluation year or gauging year.</div>
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See as per the accountancy a FY (previous year) starts from 1st of April and ends on 31st of March every year, then in most lay man’s term we all have to furnish our income details in the subsequent year called as AY (evaluation year), evaluation can only be done once we have made any earning in a given year, therefore always remember that FY shall always be one step behind from the AY.</div>
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For example if we are talking about our income for the year 2012 – 2013, then the FY start date would be 1st April, 2012 and its end date would be 31st March, 2013. Now whenever after 31st of March 2013 we file our ITR the AY for that ITR would be 2013 – 2014, meaning thereby that we are furnishing our income details which we made during the FY 1st April, 2012 to 31st March, 2013.</div>
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Hey!! Still not clear.</div>
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FY = First you earn, then AY = get your income evaluated.</div>
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<strong>5. I have filed my ITR electronically, now why I have to send the hard copy via post to Bangalore address?</strong></div>
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It is a sort of notification to the Income Tax Department that you are through with the process of filing of return and all the data has been entered in the prescribed format and now they can start evaluation and processing the same at their end. Therefore, it is more like an acknowledgement to the department for the process of filling your ITR.</div>
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<strong>6. What dose ITR under scrutiny means?</strong></div>
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‘Scrutiny’ means in another word ‘inspection’, meaning there by that whatever declaration etc you had provided to your CA or Financial Advisor or you yourself had mentioned in your ITR while submitting the same in the department, is under review and the department may come up and ask for any kind of proof to be produce in order to verify that whatever you have declared in that financial year was it correct or not.</div>
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This process of the Income Tax department is generally random, no specific person gets been targeted. Hence it’s always advisable to maintain all the supporting records of each financial years for which you are submitting your ITRs. Up till 7 years all records must be maintained, keeping the records electronically is better and less space consuming.</div>
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<strong>7. What dose ITR Refund means, can I get the same if I file my ITR?</strong></div>
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It’s an amount received back from the Income tax department which you have already paid via tax to the government and you are claiming back some percentage out of it because as per the Income Tax Law you have fulfilled some of the criterion defined there to avail the tax benefits.</div>
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<strong>8. What do you mean by Income as per the Income Tax Law?</strong></div>
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The word ‘Income’ is very broad and its meaning would be vast. In regard of a salaried person, all that is received from an employer in cash, kind or as a facility is considered as income. For a businessman, his net profits would constitute his income. Income can be from investments in the form of Interest, Dividend, and Commission etc. Under the Act, all incomes earned by persons are classified into 5 different heads, such as:</div>
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a. Income from Salary</div>
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b. Income from House property</div>
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c. Income from Business or Profession</div>
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d. Income from capital gains</div>
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e. Income from other sources</div>
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<strong>9. How much Tax am I liable to pay, how I will come to know about it?</strong></div>
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<strong>For that you’ll have to review the Income Tax website:</strong></div>
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http://law.incometaxindia.gov.in/DIT/Xtras/taxcalc.aspx or ask your CA or Tax Lawyer, they would be able to help you out.</div>
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<strong>10. I am a small time businessman; do I have to file my returns too?</strong></div>
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Yes, if your business annual turn over is 10 lacs or above and your net profit is 1.20 lacs or above, then you are suppose to maintain the books and file an ITR for the same.</div>
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<strong>11. What do you mean by TDS?</strong></div>
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It’s the tax which has been deducted out of total earning just at the source or disbursal or before transfer/paid in the account. You can review the details of the same in the form called as 26AS.</div>
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This way I, have tried to answer your some questions, there might be plenty of questions in your mind for which you are looking for logical answers, you can reach me via email<em><strong>pranabroychowdhury@gmail.com</strong></em>. I’ll try to answer your concerns.</div>
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The above mentioned article is purely the author’s point of view his versions and understanding, readers are requested to refer the government websites, for further clarifications.</div>
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<strong><em><br /></em></strong></div>
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<strong><em>Regards and Thanks to--</em></strong></div>
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<strong><em>Mr. Pranab Roy Chowdhury</em></strong></div>
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<strong><em>B.Com., MBL, LL.b</em></strong></div>
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<strong><em>Advocate</em></strong></div>
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<strong><em>Member: All India Federation of Tax Practitioners</em></strong></div>
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<strong><em>Partner: M/s AP Associates Legal Consultant</em></strong></div>
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<strong><em><br /></em></strong></div>
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<strong><em>--</em></strong></div>
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<strong><em>Haider Ajaz </em></strong></div>
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<strong><em>Advocate</em></strong></div>
Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-62596893117404821002013-05-23T18:36:00.000+05:302013-05-23T18:36:42.120+05:30Alqaab (Titles) of Imam Ali bin Abi Taleb (as)<br style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;">Among various titles, the most famous were:</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;">Al-Murtaza (Murtadha) - The Chosen one of Allah</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;">Amir al-Muminin (Ameerul Momineen) - The Commander of the Faithful</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;">Imamul Muttaqeen - The Guide of the Pious and God fearing people</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;">Mozhar al-Ajaaib (Mazharul Ajaib) - The Manifest of wonders</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;">Madeenatul Ilm - The Gateway of the City of Knowledge</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;">Saiyyidul Ausi</span><span class="text_exposed_show" style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; display: inline; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;">ya - The Chief of deputies of the Holy Prophet<br />Imamul Auliya - The Guide of the Saints<br />Asadullahul Ghaleb - The Ever Triumphant Lion of Allah<br />Lisaanullah - The Tongue of Allah<br />Yadullah - The Hand of Allah<br />Wajhullah - The Face of Allah<br />Nafse Rasulullah - The Soul of the Holy Prophet<br />Valiullah - The Friend of Allah<br />Siddeequl Akbar - The Greatest Truthful<br />Farooqul Aazam - The Greatest Distinguisher (between the truth and the falsehood)<br />Abu Turab - The Father of the Soil/Earth<br />Faateh-e-Khaiber - The Conqueror of Khaiber<br />Abul Aimmah - The Father of the Holy Imams<br />Akhu Rasulullah - The Brother of the Holy Prophet<br />Abul Eetam - The Father of orphans and the helpless<br />Haidar-e-Karrar - The Charging Lion<br />Safdar - Piercing lines, fighter</span><br />
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<span class="text_exposed_show" style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; display: inline; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;">--</span><br />
<span class="text_exposed_show" style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; display: inline; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;">Haider Ajaz</span><br />
<span class="text_exposed_show" style="background-color: white; color: #37404e; display: inline; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;">(Advocate)</span>Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-88876886620996078662013-05-12T09:58:00.002+05:302013-05-12T10:00:34.379+05:30On the Occasion of International Mother's Day---Sayings of Syeda Fatima Zahra(s.a.) the MOTHER of Imam Husain (as), Imam Hasan (as) and Two Daughters<br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />1. Praise and Eulogy is for Allah for the blessing and bounties which He has bestowed. And thanks to HIM upon what He revelated (to His servants) And Praise is for HIM upon the common boons and blessings which He bestowed upon His servants without their request And upon the comprehensive and complete blessings which He granted to all and sundry and gave it to us, consequetively. Those graces and favours which are uncountable.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">And are irredeemable and uncompensatable due to their plentifulness of number. And the imagination of their end is out of the reach of human mind.<br />He invited the servant to thankfulness for the sake of the consecutive and continuous enhanecment of blessings. And opened the door of euloqy and Praise (of Allah) upon them so that He may make his favours and beneficences great and plentiful for them.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">2. I testify that there is no Diety (Lord) except the sole and matchless Allah. And the testification of the singleness of Allah is a word that Allah has declared sincerity (as) it's reality, and made the hearts the centre of it's contact and union. And has made the specifications and research of the oneness of Allah's station obvious and evident in the light of meditation. The Allah Who can not be seen by the eyes and tongues are unable and baffled to describe His virtues and attributes. And the intelligence and apprehension of man is helpless and destitute from the imagination of his howness.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">3. Allah made all the beings without previous matter and sample and shape and pattern. And made them wear the dress of life by His main and mights and created them according to His Devine will and Intention short of it that He might have needed their creatlon or have wished any benefit for Himself from their shaping and sketching except this that he wanted to give a proof of HIS wisdom and make the people (creations) aware about His obedience and submission and invited them to his servitude and worship and make His Invitation grand and ostentatious.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">4. Allah fixed the reward for His obedience and torment for His insubordination and disobedience so that He may restraln His servants from His wrath and fury and lead them to His paradise.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">5. And I testify that my father Mohammad (pbuh&hf) is the apostle and the servant of Allah. And Allah selected and chose him before appointing him at the post of Prophethood. And He named him before choosing and selecting him. And chose him before envoying and delegating him. Then all the creations were hidden and covered in the covers of unseen and were hidden amid the screen and curtain of fear and fright and stayed near the last and final border of non entity (nothingness) for Allah was aware of and knew the end of matters and because of His encompassing the incidents of times and ages and His knowledge of the predestinates.<br />Allah appointed him (as apostle) so that he may complete and finalise His matter and Implement His order and materialise His decreeds and predestinates.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">6. Allah saw nations and groups had various different sects in their religion and scattered and staying on the verge of the fires of differences, busy with the their idol worshipping. They denied God with all the signs and symbols of HIM. (IRFAN) So Allah illuminated the darknesses through my father Mohammad (pbuh&hf) and removed the darknesses from their hearts, removed (cured) the blindness of the eyes.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">7. My father (Mohammad (pbuh&hf) ) stood up with (his) guidance among the people. And saved them from perversion and aberration, and turned their blindness into enlightenment and guided them towards the firm religion. And called (invited) them to the straight way.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">8. You the servants of Allah, are the ones to maintain His injunctions and prohibitions, and the carriers of His religion, and His relevation, and the trustees of Allah upon your souls, and the propagators of His religion among the other nations.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">9. Oh the servants of Allah! (beware) the real leader from Allah, is present among you and the commitment has previously been made to you and the remaining and left over of the prophet hood has been appointed for your guidance.<br />That is the speaking book of Allah the truthful Quran, and a beaming and gleaming light, in which all the secrets and facts about the completion of man and his prosperity have been exhibited and illuminated. It guides from darkness towards light of guidance. It s followers are the subject of envoy of others.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">10. The book of Allah is the guide of it's followers towards the pleasure of Allah. Listening (carefully) to it leads to the salvation. The enlightened and conspicuous evidences and proofs of Allah can be obtained through it. And (also the knowledge) of His interpreted intentions and fear invoking constraining prohibitions. His sufficing testimonies and conspicuous arguments, and desired virtues and allowed endowments and gifts and obligatory divine laws. (can be obtained from it)</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">11. Allah made the faith for you as a purity from polytheism (and infidelity).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">12. And (made) service the cause of your getting distant (purification) from pride (egoism).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">13. And rendered alms for the purity of your soul and flourishment and expansion of your sustenance.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">14. And rendered fasting for the maintenance and firmness of your sincerity.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">15. And Allah set Hajj for the consolidation and reinforcement of the religion.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">16. Allah executed and rendered justice for the sake of putting together and harmonization of the hearts.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">17. And (Allah set) the subordination and obedience of us (the household of the Prophet (SAW)) for the security of society's system and our Immamate as a safety from segregation and disunity).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">18. And (Allah made) Jihad (holy war), the honour and glory for Islam and abjectness and humbleness for the infidels and the hypocrites.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">19. And (Allah rendered) patience as a help for getting reward.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">20. And (Allah caused) commanding goodness and forbidding to do evil for the amendment and correction of society and the common folks (public).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">21. And (Allah made) the kindness to parents as a protection (shield) to His wrath and displeasure.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">22. And Allah made joining and connecting with the kinship and cognition, the cause of lengthening of life.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">23.And Allah made law of retaliation (revenge for homicide) as the security of blood (from being shed).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">24. And Allah executed the vow performing as a medium for forgiveness.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">25. And (Allah rendered) the correct use of weights measure (units) a medium for stopping from selling less (than actual).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">26. And (Allah rendered) prohibition from drinking wine the cause of taking distance from contaminations (evils).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">27. And Allah made the prohibition to accuse someone of adultery a protection (shield) for avoiding (His) curse.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">28. And (Allah made) refraining from theft for the sake of positiveness and affirmation for modesty.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">29. And Allah prohibited polytheism for the sake of (bringing about) sincerity in (His) adoration and worship.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">30. Certainly, an apostle has come to you from among yourselves; grievous to him is your falling into distress, excessively solicitous respecting you; to the believers (he is) compassionate, merciful. So if you assay and recognise him you will find he is my father not the father of your women and the brother of my cousin, Ali (a.s.) not that of your men. And how nice a relation I have to him. So he propagated his prophetic (mission). He always used to turn his face from the polytheists. And fought against them till he beat them up. He would invite people towards Allah by wisdom, and beautiful admonition. He broke the idols and scattered the aggregation of polytheists in a way that they ran away (from the battle fields), so that finally the hidden secret of oneness of Allah became manifested by him. And he made the logic of religion reach the ears ((of the people) and settled down the foam of the camels of satan and turned the salogan yelling of those devils silent. And downed the agents of hypocrisy and mutual commitments of the infidels got dissolved till such time that, you (people) spoke to a group of enlightened and modest men with the words of oneness of Allah and sincerity.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">31. You were on the edge of a fire ditch, and were a cup of drink and the morsel of a greedy one and a firebrand of every hasty one and were being trampled on (by other nations) and drank from the contaminated waters gathered over in ditches and your energy (food) was (secured by) the leaves of trees and desert grass. And for your abjectness and abasement you were always afraid that those around you might abduct you in the winking of an eye. So, Allah liberated you (of these misfortunes) through my father Mohammed (pbuh&hf). Inspite of it that he (pbuh&hf) was involved and at war against the intrepid and the hungry wolves of Arab and the stubborn refractoriness of the people of the books (Jews and Christians). Whenever his opponents would lit the fire of war, Allah extinguished it to your benefit.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">32. Imam Hassan (A.S) said, 'on the Friday night I saw my mother (Fatima (a.s.)) standing in her arch of prayer. She was continuously kneeling and performing prostration till the dawn broke. I would hear her pray for the faithful men and women, but she did not at all pray for herself. I said, 'Oh mother why did you not pray for yourself like you prayed for others?' so she replied, 'Oh my son, first thy neighbour and there after your own house.'</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">33. The Holy Prophet (pbuh&hf) said to Fatima (a.s.) what is the thing which is a blessing for woman?' She said that, 'she must not see a man (stranger and not intimate) and a man must not see her.'</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">34. One day a lady came to Fatima (a.s.) said 'I have a weak old mother who does not know a few problems about her service (prayers). She has sent me towards you to question you (about them). Thus Fatima(a.s.) answered her (questions). And the number of her queries reached to ten and Fatima (a.s.) replied to all her questions. Then she (the woman got a shamed because of the high number of her questions. And said, 'Oh daughter of the Prophet (pbuh&hf), 'I do not put you to more inconvenience than this.' Fatima (a.s.) said, 'Ask me what you do not know. Have you ever seen a person who is one day hired to carry a heavy thing to the roof top from ground for an amount (equal to) a thousand dinnars (nearly a hundred thousand miskal (unit of weight) of gold) and he may feel himself tired.'<br />She said 'No'. Fatima (a.s.) said, 'I have been hired by Allah to get a wages which if the space between the earth and sky is filled up with pearls still (That wages) would he more than it for each of the questions I may answer you. Therefore, I deserve it that I must not feel tired exhausted.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">35. Oh Allah! belittle me in my eyes and glorify and magnify Your station to me. And inspire me (about) Your obedience and the practice which may cause Your pleasure and the shunning and evading from things (matters) which are the cause of Your wrath, oh the most merciful of all! 36.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">36. Oh Allah! content me with the sustenance you have granted me. And till such time that you keep me alive, hide me and make me sound and prosperous. And forgive me and take pity upon me when I die. (During death process). Oh Allah! do not help me in something that you have not predestined for me. And facilitate the achievement of that thing which you have predestined for me.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">37. Oh Allah! bestow upon my parents and all those persons who have rights of their blessings and beneficiences upon me, the best of Your rewards. Oh my Allah, spare me the leisure and respite for the object for which You have created me. And do not let me be busy and involved (absolutely) in my commitments. And do not torment me when I ask forgiveness. And do not deprive me of what I yearn and question you for.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">38. Underlying are the rhymes which Hazrat Zahra(s.a.) recited upon the mourning of Prophet's (pbuh&hf) demise. The person who smells the sweet fragrance of the grave of the Holy Prophet (pbuh&hf) so what if he does not smell any other fragnance for long times to come?<br />Agonies and anguishes and grief's poured upon me in such a way that had they poured upon days those would have turned into nights. (bleak, dark and bewildering).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">39. The dust of sorrow covered the space of sky and the sun has faded and the bright day turned bleak. The earth has become dark and gloomy after the death of the Prophet (pbuh&hf) Woe! Alas! what the earth will have much of Jolting upon being separated and parted from him (pbuh&hf).<br />It is meritorious and befitting that the east and west of the world may weep upon the parting of Prophet (pbuh&hf) and the persons of Muzzir tribe and all of they rest of the Yemen tribes shed tears. And the great magnificent mountain of the existence and the hidden and covered Kabaah (House of ALLAH) and its pillars should shed tears. Oh the terminator and finaliser of the (series of) prophets! the light of whom is the source of blessing for the worlds inhabitants, Be the salutation and blessings of Allah the desender of Holy Quran upon you.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">40. Following you (Prophet (pbuh&hf)) inequities (intrigues and revolts) took shape and variant voices were raised so that if you were present and supervising (things) all these differences and deviations would not have taken place. You set off (on the journey of eternity) from among us and now our condition is like the earth which becomes devoid of the beneficial rains. And your nation upset the order and discipline of matters. So be a witness and do not let their matter get out of your sight.</span></div>
Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-68180587803039665192013-05-12T00:04:00.000+05:302013-05-12T00:04:17.880+05:30PROCEDURE TO BE ADOPTED BY COURTS IN A PARTITION SUIT WHEN A PLAINTIFF WANTS TO WITHDRAW THE SUIT<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 11.333333015441895px;" /><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; line-height: 11.333333015441895px;">Smt. Gowramma vs Nanjappa And Ors. AIR 2002 Kant 76 The procedure to be adopted by Courts in a partition suit, when a plaintiff wants to withdraw the suit, or when plaintiff wants the suit to be dismissed as settled out of Court with some defendants, can be summarised thus :</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; line-height: 11.333333015441895px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; line-height: 11.333333015441895px;">(i) When a plaintiff wants a partition suit to be dismissed or withdrawn as settled out of Court, the Court should require notice of such application or memo to all other parties (not only all defendants, but co-plaintiffs if any) and hear the parties.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; line-height: 11.333333015441895px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; line-height: 11.333333015441895px;">(ii) If all parties are agreeable for the dismissal or withdrawal, the Court may grant the request.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; line-height: 11.333333015441895px;" /><span class="text_exposed_show" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; display: inline; line-height: 11.333333015441895px;">(iii) If any defendant has already sought partition and separate possession by paying Court Fee and opposes the dismissal/ withdrawal, it shall permit such defendant to transpose himself/herself as plaintiff and continue the suit, irrespective of whether he makes an application for transposition or not.<br />(iv) Even if no defendant has sought the relief of partition and separate possession, till then, the Court may in appropriate cases permit any defendant who files an application in that behalf, to get himself transposed as plaintiff and claim partition and separate possession by paying necessary Court Fee and continue the suit. Refusal to grant such permission should be for valid reasons to be assigned by the Court.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span class="text_exposed_show" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; display: inline; line-height: 11.333333015441895px;">Special Thanks to:</span></span><br />
Mr Sridhara Babu<br />
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Haider Ajaz (Advocate)Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-33879508006419255272013-04-24T17:38:00.000+05:302013-04-24T17:38:03.979+05:30Supreme Court on its ‘power to review’ in Union of India vs. Sandur Manganese & Iron Ores Ltd. & Ors<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: medium;">In “<a href="http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/imgs1.aspx?filename=40328" style="color: #6ea1bb; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">Union of India vs. Sandur Manganese & Iron Ores Ltd. & Ors</a>”, Review Petition (C) No. 739 of 2012, in Civil Appeal No. 7944 of 2010, (decided on 23.04.2013) the Hon’ble Supreme Court delved upon its power or review under <a href="http://www.lawzonline.com/bareacts/Indian-Constitution/Article137-Constitution-of-India.html" style="color: #6ea1bb; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">Article 137</a> of <a href="http://www.lawzonline.com/bareacts/Indian-Constitution/Constitution-of-India.html" style="color: #6ea1bb; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">Constitution of India</a>, Part VIII Order XL of the Supreme Court Rules, 1966, and <a href="http://www.lawzonline.com/bareacts/civil-procedure-code/order47-rule1-code-of-civil-procedure.htm" style="color: #6ea1bb; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">Order XLVII, Rule 1</a>(1) of the <a href="http://www.lawzonline.com/bareacts/civil-procedure-code/code-of-civil-procedure.html" style="color: #6ea1bb; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">Code of Civil Procedure, 1908</a>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: medium;">The Hon’ble court after going through the aforesaid provisions, observed as under:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: medium;">“The following grounds of review are maintainable as stipulated by the statute:<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: medium;">(i) Discovery of new and important matter or evidence which, after the exercise of due diligence, was not within knowledge of the petitioner or could not be produced by him;<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: medium;">(ii) Mistake or error apparent on the face of the record;<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: medium;"><i>(iii) Any other sufficient reason”</i> [Para 12]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: medium;">The words “any other sufficient reason” has been interpreted in Chhajju Ram vs. Neki, AIR 1922 PC 112 and approved by this Court in Moran Mar Basselios Catholicos vs. Most Rev. Mar Poulose Athanasius Ors., (1955) 1 SCR 520, to mean “a reason sufficient on grounds at least analogous to those specified in the rule”. [Para 13]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: medium;">The Court further observed that:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: medium;">(i) In review jurisdiction, mere disagreement with the view of the judgment cannot be the ground for invoking the same. As long as the point is already dealt with and answered, the parties are not entitled to challenge the impugned judgment in the guise that an alternative view is possible under the review jurisdiction. Hence, in review jurisdiction, the court shall interfere only when there is a glaring omission or patent mistake or when a grave error has crept in the impugned judgment. [Para 24]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: medium;">(ii) Review proceedings are not by way of an appeal and have to be strictly confined to the scope and ambit of <a href="http://www.lawzonline.com/bareacts/civil-procedure-code/order47-rule1-code-of-civil-procedure.htm" style="color: #6ea1bb; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">Order 47 Rule 1</a> of <a href="http://www.lawzonline.com/bareacts/civil-procedure-code/code-of-civil-procedure.html" style="color: #6ea1bb; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">CPC</a>. [Para 23]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: medium;">(iii) The power of review jurisdiction can be exercised for the correction of a mistake and not to substitute a view. [Para 22]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: medium;">Parsion Devi & Ors. vs. Sumitri Devi & Ors., (1997) 8 SCC 715, which held as under:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: medium;">“9. Under <a href="http://www.lawzonline.com/bareacts/civil-procedure-code/order47-rule1-code-of-civil-procedure.htm" style="color: #6ea1bb; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">Order 47 Rule 1</a> <a href="http://www.lawzonline.com/bareacts/civil-procedure-code/code-of-civil-procedure.html" style="color: #6ea1bb; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">CPC</a> a judgment may be open to review inter alia if there is a mistake or an error apparent on the face of the record. An error which is not self-evident and has to be detected by a process of reasoning, can hardly be said to be an error apparent on the face of the record justifying the court to exercise its power of review under Order 47 Rule I CPC. In exercise of the jurisdiction under <a href="http://www.lawzonline.com/bareacts/civil-procedure-code/order47-rule1-code-of-civil-procedure.htm" style="color: #6ea1bb; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">Order 47 Rule 1</a>CPC it is not permissible for an erroneous decision to be "reheard and corrected". A review petition, it must be remembered has a limited purpose and cannot be allowed to be "an appeal in disguise".</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: medium;">Supplement from: </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: medium;">lawbeed.com</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: medium;">Haider Ajaz</span></div>
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Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-7962960059252610272013-04-06T08:27:00.000+05:302013-04-06T08:27:20.444+05:30Use of Stamp Part even after six months <br style="background-color: white; color: grey; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11.11111068725586px; line-height: 9.722221374511719px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: grey; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11.11111068725586px; line-height: 9.722221374511719px;">Thiruvengada Pillai vs. Navaneethammal and Anr., </span><br style="background-color: white; color: grey; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11.11111068725586px; line-height: 9.722221374511719px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: grey; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11.11111068725586px; line-height: 9.722221374511719px;">the stamp papers do not have any expiry period. Relevant extract f</span><span class="text_exposed_show" style="background-color: white; color: grey; display: inline; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11.11111068725586px; line-height: 9.722221374511719px;">rom SC judgement is reproduced herein below:<br /><br />The Indian Stamp Act, 1899, nowhere prescribes any expiry date for use of a stamp paper. Section 54 merely provides that a person possessing a stamp paper for which he has no immediate use (which is not spoiled or rendered unfit or useless), can seek refund of the value thereof by surrendering such stamp paper to the Collector provided it was purchased within the period of six months next preceding the date on which it was so surrendered. The stipulation of the period of six months prescribed in Section 54 is only for the purpose of seeking refund of the value of the unused stamp paper, and not for use of the stamp paper. Section 54 does not require the person who has purchased a stamp paper, to use it within six months. Therefore, there is no impediment for a stamp paper purchased more than six months prior to the proposed date of execution, being used for a document.</span><br />
<span class="text_exposed_show" style="background-color: white; color: grey; display: inline; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11.11111068725586px; line-height: 9.722221374511719px;"><br /><br />SUPREME COURT OF INDIA<br />Thiruvengada Pillai Vs. Navaneethammal & Anr. [2008] 19 February 2008<br /><br />ORDER R. V. Raveendran & P.Sathasivam R. V. Raveendran, J.<br /><br />This appeal by special leave is by the plaintiff in a suit for specific performance – OS No.290/1980 on the file of District Munsiff, Tindivanam. Pleadings<br /><br />2. In the plaint, the plaintiff (appellant) alleged that the first defendant (Adilakshmi) agreed to sell the suit schedule property to him under an agreement of sale dated 5.1.1980 for a consideration of Rs.3,000/-, and received Rs.2,000/- as advance. She agreed to execute a sale deed by receiving the balance consideration of Rs.1,000/- within three months.<br /><br />Possession of the suit property was delivered to him, under the said agreement. He issued a notice dated 14.2.1980 calling upon the first defendant to receive the balance price and execute the sale deed. The first defendant sent a reply denying the agreement. To avoid performing the agreement of sale, the first defendant executed a nominal sale deed in regard to the suit property in favour of the second defendant (first respondent herein), who was her close relative. The said sale was neither valid nor binding on him. On the said averments, he sought specific performance of the agreement of sale, against the defendant, alleging that he was ready and willing to perform his part of the contract.<br /><br />3. The defendants denied the allegation that the first defendant had executed an agreement of sale dated 5.1.1980 in favour of the plaintiff or that she had delivered possession of the suit property to him. They contended that plaintiff had concocted and forged the document with the help of his henchmen to defraud the defendants. They claimed that the first defendant had executed a valid sale deed dated 11.2.1980 in favour of the second defendant and had delivered possession of the suit property to her; and that the second defendant had put up a hut in the schedule property and was actually residing therein. The second defendant raised an additional contention that she was a bona fide purchaser for value and therefore, the sale in her favour was valid.<br /><br />4. During the pendency of the suit first defendant died, and the third defendant (second respondent herein) was impleaded as her legal representative, who adopted the written statement of the second defendant.<br /><br />Issues and the Judgment<br /><br />5. On the said pleadings, three issues were framed by the trial court :<br /><br />(i) whether the agreement put forth by the plaintiff was true or concocted ?<br /><br />(ii) whether the second defendant had purchased the suit property for valid consideration ? and<br /><br />(iii) whether the plaintiff was entitled to the relief of specific performance ?<br /><br />The plaintiff examined himself as PW-1 and the scribe of the agreement (Ramaswami Pillai) as PW-2 and an attesting witness to the sale agreement (Venkatesha Pillai) as PW-3. The agreement of sale was exhibited as Ex. A-1. The notice and reply were marked as Ex. A2 and A4. The second defendant, (purchaser of the site), gave evidence as DW-1 and the third defendant, who was also a witness to the sale deed dated 11.2.1980, was examined as DW-2. The sale deed dated 11.2.1980 executed by first defendant in favour of second defendant was marked as Ex.B2 and previous title deed was exhibited as Ex. B4. The plaintiff and his witnesses gave evidence that the sale agreement was duly executed by first defendant in favour of plaintiff. The defendants gave evidence about the sale in favour of second defendant and denied execution of any agreement of sale in favour of plaintiff.<br /><br />6. The trial court after appreciating the evidence, dismissed the suit by judgment and decree dated 28.2.1984. It held that the agreement of sale put forth by plaintiff was false and must have been created after the sale on 11.2.1980 in favour of second defendant, by using some old stamp papers in his possession. The said finding was based on the following facts and circumstances :<br /><br />(a) The sale agreement (A-1) was not executed on currently purchased stamp paper, but was written on two stamp papers, one purchased on 25.8.1973 in the name of Thiruvengadam and another purchased on 7.8.1978 in the name of Thiruvengadam Pillai.<br /><br />(b) The two attestors to the agreement were close relatives of plaintiff. One of them was Kannan, brother of the plaintiff and he was not examined. The other was Venkatesa Pillai, uncle of plaintiff examined as PW3. The scribe (PW-2) was a caste-man of plaintiff. Their evidence was not trustworthy.<br /><br />(c) Though the agreement of sale recited that the possession of the suit property was delivered to plaintiff, no such possession was delivered. On the other hand, the second defendant was put in possession on execution of the sale deed and she put up a thatched hut in the schedule property and was in actual physical possession. This falsified the agreement.<br /><br />(d) If really there was an agreement of sale, in the normal course, the plaintiff would have obtained the title deeds from the first defendant. But the earlier title deeds were not delivered to him. On the other hand, they were delivered to the second defendant who produced them as Ex.B3 and Ex.B4.<br /><br />(e) In spite of defendants denying the agreement (Ex.A1), the plaintiff failed to discharge his onus to prove that execution of the agreement as he did not seek reference to a fingerprint expert to establish that the thumb impression on the agreement was that of the first defendant.<br /><br />The first & second appeals<br /><br />6. Feeling aggrieved, the plaintiff filed an appeal before the Sub-Court, Tindivanam. The first appellate court allowed the plaintiff’s appeal by judgment dated 12.1.1987, held that the agreement of sale was proved and decreed the suit granting specific performance. The following reasons were given by the first appellant court in support of its finding :<br /><br />(a) The evidence of PW1 (plaintiff), the scribe (PW2) and the attestor (PW3) proved the due execution of the agreement by the first defendant. As the scribe (PW2) was not related to plaintiff and as PW3 was not a close relative of plaintiff, their evidence could not have been rejected.<br /><br />(b) The burden of proving that the agreement of sale was concocted and forged was on the defendants and they ought to have taken steps to have the document examined by a Finger Print expert, to establish that the disputed thumb mark in the agreement of sale (Ex.A1), was different from the admitted thumb mark of the first defendant in the sale deed (Ex.B2). They failed to do so.<br /><br />(c) There appeared to be no marked difference between the finger impression in the agreement of sale (Ex.A1) and the finger impression in the sale deed in favour of the second defendant (Ex.B2), on a perusal of the said two documents. Therefore, it could be inferred that first defendant had executed the agreement.<br /><br />(d) Execution of the agreement of sale on two stamp papers purchased on different dates, did not invalidate the agreement.<br /><br />8. Being aggrieved, the second defendant filed a second appeal. The High Court allowed the second appeal and dismissed the suit, by judgment dated 17.2.1999. The High Court while restoring the decision of the trial court held that the agreement of sale was not genuine for the following reasons:<br /><br />(i) The first appellate court had placed the onus wrongly on the defendants to prove the negative. As the first defendant denied execution of the agreement, the burden of establishing the execution of document, was on the plaintiff. The plaintiff had failed to establish by acceptable evidence that Ex. A-1 was a true and valid agreement of sale. The evidence, examined as a whole, threw considerable doubt as to whether it was truly and validly executed.<br /><br />(ii) A perusal of the agreement (Ex.A1) showed that the thumb impression was very pale and not clear. The first appellate court could not, by a casual comparison of the disputed thumb impression in the agreement with the admitted thumb impression in the sale deed, record a finding that there were no marked differences in the thumb impressions in the two documents (Ex.A1 and Ex.B2). In the absence of an expert’s opinion that the thumb impression on the agreement of the sale was that of the first defendant, the first appellate court ought not to have concluded that the agreement of sale was executed by the first defendant.<br /><br />(iii) In the normal course, an agreement would be executed on stamp papers purchased immediately prior to the execution of the agreement. The fact that the agreement was written on two stamp papers bearing the dates 25.8.1973 and 7.8.1978 purchased in two different names showed that it was not genuine, but was anti-dated and forged.<br /><br />(iv) The attesting witnesses to the agreement of sale were close relatives of plaintiff. Their evidence was not trustworthy.<br /><br />Points for consideration<br /><br />8. The said judgment of the High Court is challenged in this appeal by special leave. The appellant contended that having regard to the provisions of Evidence Act, 1872, there was nothing improper in the first appellate court comparing the disputed thumb impression in Ex. A-1 with the admitted thumb impression of first defendant in Ex. B-2; and the finding of the first appellate court on such comparison, that there were no marked differences between the two thumb impressions, being a finding of fact, was not open to interference in second appeal. It was next contended that the execution of the agreement of sale was duly proved by the evidence of plaintiff (PW1), the scribe (PW-2) and one of the attesting witnesses (PW3). It was pointed out there was no evidence to rebut the evidence of PW1, PW2 and PW3 regarding due execution as first defendant died without giving evidence, and as the defendants did not seek reference to a finger print expert to prove that the thumb impression on the agreement of sale was not that of first defendant. It was submitted that an agreement cannot be doubted or invalidated merely on account of the fact that the two stamp papers used for the agreement were purchased on different dates. The Appellant therefore submitted that the sale agreement was duly proved.<br /><br />9. On the contentions urged, the following questions arise for consideration:<br /><br />(i) Whether the agreement of sale executed on two stamp papers purchased on different dates and more than six months prior to date of execution is not valid?<br /><br />(ii) Whether the first appellate court was justified in comparing the disputed thumb impression with the admitted thumb impression and recording a finding about the authenticity of the thumb impression, without the benefit of any opinion of an expert?<br /><br />(iii) Whether the High Court erred in reversing the judgment of the first appellate court in second appeal? Re : Question (i)<br /><br />11. The Trial Court and the High Court have doubted the genuineness of the agreement dated 5.1.1980 because it was written on two stamp papers purchased on 25.8.1973 and 7.8.1978. The learned counsel for first respondent submitted that apart from raising a doubt about the authenticity of the document, the use of such old stamp papers invalidated the agreement itself for two reasons. Firstly, it was illegal to use stamp papers purchased on different dates for execution of a document. Secondly, as the stamp papers used in the agreement of sale were more than six months old, they were not valid stamp papers and consequently, the agreement prepared on such ‘expired’ papers was also not valid. We will deal with the second contention first. The Indian Stamp Act, 1899 nowhere prescribes any expiry date for use of a stamp paper. Section 54 merely provides that a person possessing a stamp paper for which he has no immediate use (which is not spoiled or rendered unfit or useless), can seek refund of the value thereof by surrendering such stamp paper to the Collector provided it was purchased within the period of six months next preceding the date on which it was so surrendered. The stipulation of the period of six months prescribed in section 54 is only for the purpose of seeking refund of the value of the unused stamp paper, and not for use of the stamp paper. Section 54 does not require the person who has purchased a stamp paper, to use it within six months.<br /><br />Therefore, there is no impediment for a stamp paper purchased more than six months prior to the proposed date of execution, being used for a document.<br /><br />12. The Stamp Rules in many States provide that when a person wants to purchase stamp papers of a specified value and a single stamp paper of such value is not available, the stamp vendor can supply appropriate number of stamp papers required to make up the specified value; and that when more than one stamp paper is issued in regard to a single transaction, the stamp vendor is required to give consecutive numbers. In some States, the rules further require an endorsement by the stamp vendor on the stamp paper certifying that a single sheet of required value was not available and therefore more than one sheet (specifying the number of sheets) have been issued to make up the requisite stamp value. But the Indian Stamp Rules, 1925 applicable to Tamil Nadu, do not contain any provision that the stamp papers of required value should be purchased together from the same vendor with consecutive serial numbers. The Rules merely provide that where two or more sheets of paper on which stamps are engraved or embossed are used to make up the amount of duty chargeable in respect of any instrument, a portion of such instrument shall be written on each sheet so used. No other Rule was brought to our notice which required use of consecutively numbered stamp papers in the State of Tamil Nadu. The Stamp Act is a fiscal enactment intended to secure revenue for the State. In the absence of any Rule requiring consecutively numbered stamp papers purchased on the same day, being used for an instrument which is not intended to be registered, a document cannot be termed as invalid merely because it is written on two stamp papers purchased by the same person on different dates. Even assuming that use of such stamp papers is an irregularity, the court can only deem the document to be not properly stamped, but cannot, only on that ground, hold the document to be invalid. Even if an agreement is not executed on requisite stamp paper, it is admissible in evidence on payment of duty and penalty under section 35 or 37 of the Indian Stamp Act, 1899. If an agreement executed on a plain paper could be admitted in evidence by paying duty and penalty, there is no reason why an agreement executed on two stamp papers, even assuming that they were defective, cannot be accepted on payment of duty and penalty. But admissibility of a document into evidence and proof of genuineness of such document are different issues.<br /><br />13. If a person wants to create or a back-dated agreement, the first hurdle he faces is the non-availability of stamp paper of such old date. Therefore tampering of the date of issue and seal affixed by the stamp vendor, as also the entries made by the stamp vendor, are quite common in a forged document. When the agreement is dated 5.1.1980, and the stamp papers used are purchased in the years 1973 and 1978, one of the possible inferences is that the plaintiff not being able to secure an anti-dated stamp paper for creating the agreement (bearing a date prior to the date of sale in favour of second defendant), made use of some old stamp papers that were available with him, to fabricate the document. The fact that very old stamp papers of different dates have been used, may certainly be a circumstance that can be used as a piece of evidence to cast doubt on the authenticity of the agreement. But that cannot be a clinching evidence. There is also a possibility that a lay man unfamiliar with legal provisions relating to stamps, may bona fide think that he could use the old unused stamp papers lying with him for preparation of the document and accordingly use the old stamp papers.<br /><br />Re : Point No.(ii)<br /><br />14. Section 45 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872 relates to ‘opinion of experts’. It provides inter alia that when the court has to form an opinion as to identity of handwriting or finger impressions, the opinion upon that point of persons specially skilled in questions as to identity or handwriting or finger impressions are relevant facts. Section 73 provides that in order to ascertain whether a finger impression is that of the person by whom it purports to have been made, any finger impression admitted to have been made by that person, may be compared with the one which is to be proved.<br /><br />These provisions have been the subject matter of several decisions of this Court.<br /><br />14.1) In The State (Delhi Administration) v. Pali Ram [1979 (2) SCC 158] this Court held that a court does not exceed its power under section 73 if it compares the disputed writing with the admitted writing of the party so as to reach its own conclusion. But this Court cautioned:<br /><br />“Although there is no legal bar to the Judge using his own eyes to compare the disputed writing with the admitted writing, even without the aid of the evidence of any handwriting expert, the Judge should, as a matter of prudence and caution, hesitate to base his finding with regard to the identity of a handwriting which forms the sheet-anchor of the prosecution case against a person accused of an offence, solely on comparison made by himself. It is therefore, not advisable that a Judge should take upon himself the task of comparing the admitted writing with the disputed one to find out whether the two agree with each other; and the prudent course is to obtain the opinion and assistance of an expert.”<br /><br />The caution was reiterated in O. Bharathan vs. K. Sudhakaran 1996 (2) SCC 704. Again in Ajit Savant Majagvai v. State of Karnataka [1997 (7) SCC 110] referring to section 73 of the Evidence Act, this Court held :<br /><br />“The section does not specify by whom the comparison shall be made.<br /><br />However, looking to the other provisions of the Act, it is clear that such comparison may either be made by a handwriting expert under Section 45 or by anyone familiar with the handwriting of the person concerned as provided by Section 47 or by the Court itself.<br /><br />As a matter of extreme caution and judicial sobriety, the Court should not normally take upon itself the responsibility of comparing the disputed signature with that of the admitted signature or handwriting and in the event of the slightest doubt, leave the matter to the wisdom of experts. But this does not mean that the Court has not the power to compare the dispute signature with the admitted signature as this power is clearly available under Section 73 of the Act.”<br /><br />14.2) In Murari Lal v. State of Madhya Pradesh – 1980 (1) SCC 704, this Court indicated the circumstances in which the Court may itself compare disputed and admitted writings, thus :<br /><br />“The argument that the court should not venture to compare writings itself, as it would thereby assume to itself the role of an expert is entirely without force. Section 73 of the Evidence Act expressly enables the court to compare disputed writings with admitted or proved writings to ascertain whether a writing is that of the person by whom it purports to have been written. If it is hazardous to do so, as sometimes said, we are afraid it is one of the hazards to which judge and litigant must expose themselves whenever it becomes necessary. There may be cases where both sides call experts and the voices of science are heard. There may be cases where neither side calls an expert, being ill able to afford him. In all such cases, it becomes the plain duty of the court to compare the writings and come to its own conclusions. The duty cannot be avoided by recourse to the statement that the court is no expert. Where there are expert opinions, they will aid the court. Where there is none, the court will have to seek guidance from some authoritative textbook and the court’s own experience and knowledge. But discharge it must, its plain duty, with or without expert, with or without other evidence.”<br /><br />The decision in Murari Lal (supra) was followed in Lalit Popli v. Canara Bank & Ors. [2003 (3) SCC 583].<br /><br />15. While there is no doubt that court can compare the disputed handwriting/signature/finger impression with the admitted handwriting/ signature/finger impression, such comparison by court without the assistance of any expert, has always been considered to be hazardous and risky. When it is said that there is no bar to a court to compare the disputed finger impression with the admitted finger impression, it goes without saying that it can record an opinion or finding on such comparison, only after an analysis of the characteristics of the admitted finger impression and after verifying whether the same characteristics are found in the disputed finger impression.<br /><br />The comparison of the two thumb impressions cannot be casual or by a mere glance. Further, a finding in the judgment that there appeared to be no marked differences between the admitted thumb impression and disputed thumb impression, without anything more, cannot be accepted as a valid finding that the disputed signature is of the person who has put the admitted thumb impression. Where the Court finds that the disputed finger impression and admitted thumb impression are clear and where the court is in a position to identify the characteristics of finger prints, the court may record a finding on comparison, even in the absence of an expert’s opinion. But where the disputed thumb impression is smudgy, vague or very light, the court should not hazard a guess by a casual perusal. The decision in Muralilal (supra) and Lalit Popli (supra) should not be construed as laying a proposition that the court is bound to compare the disputed and admitted finger impressions and record a finding thereon, irrespective of the condition of the disputed finger impression. When there is a positive denial by the person who is said to have affixed his finger impression and where the finger impression in the disputed document is vague or smudgy or not clear, making it difficult for comparison, the court should hesitate to venture a decision based on its own comparison of the disputed and admitted finger impressions. Further even in cases where the court is constrained to take up such comparison, it should make a thorough study, if necessary with the assistance of counsel, to ascertain the characteristics, similarities and dissimilarities. Necessarily, the judgment should contain the reasons for any conclusion based on comparison of the thumb impression, if it chooses to record a finding thereon. The court should avoid reaching conclusions based on a mere casual or routine glance or perusal.<br /><br />16. In this case the first defendant had denied having put her finger impression on Ex. A-1. She died during the pendency of the suit before her turn came for giving evidence. The High Court having examined the document has clearly recorded the finding that the thumb mark in Ex. A-1 was pale (that is light) and not clear. The document though dated 1980, was executed on two stamp papers which were purchased in 1973 and 1978.<br /><br />Contrary to the recital in the agreement that possession had been delivered to the plaintiff, the possession was not in fact delivered to plaintiff, but continued with the first defendant and she delivered the possession to the second defendant. The title deeds were not delivered to plaintiff. The attesting witnesses were close relatives of plaintiff and one of them was not examined. The scribe’s evidence was unsatisfactory. It was also difficult to believe that the first defendant, an illiterate old woman from a village, would enter into an agreement of sale on 5.1.1980 with plaintiff, and even when he is ready to complete the sale, sell the property to someone else hardly a month thereafter, on 11.2.1980. In this background, the finding by the first appellant court, recorded without the benefit of any expert opinion, merely on a casual perusal, that there appeared to be no marked differences between the two thumb impressions, and therefore Ex. A-1 (sale agreement) must have been executed by first defendant, was unsound. The High Court was justified in interfering with the finding of the first appellate court that the Ex.A1 was executed by first defendant.<br /><br />Re : Point No.(iii)<br /><br />17. The trial court had analyzed the evidence properly and had dismissed the suit by giving cogent reasons. The first appellate court reversed it by wrongly placing onus on the defendants. Its observation that when the execution of an unregistered document put forth by the plaintiff was denied by the defendants, it was for the defendants to establish that the document was forged or concocted, is not sound proposition. The first appellate court proceeded on the basis that it is for the party who asserts something to prove that thing; and as the defendants alleged that the agreement was forged, it was for them to prove it. But the first appellate court lost sight of the fact that the party who propounds the document will have to prove it. In this case plaintiffs came to court alleging that the first defendant had executed an agreement of sale in favour. The first defendant having denied it, the burden was on the plaintiff to prove that the first defendant had executed the agreement and not on the first defendant to prove the negative. The issues also placed the burden on the plaintiff to prove the document to be true. No doubt, the plaintiff attempted to discharge his burden by examining himself as also scribe and one of the attesting witnesses. But the various circumstances enumerated by the trial court and High Court referred to earlier, when taken together, rightly create a doubt about the genuineness of the agreement and dislodge the effect of the evidence of PW 1 to 3. We are therefore of the view that the decision of the High Court, reversing the decision of the first appellate court, does not call for interference.<br /><br />18. We, therefore, find no merit in this appeal and the same is accordingly dismissed. Parties to bear their respective costs.</span><br />
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<span class="text_exposed_show" style="background-color: white; color: grey; display: inline; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11.11111068725586px; line-height: 9.722221374511719px;">Haider Ajaz </span><br />
<span class="text_exposed_show" style="background-color: white; color: grey; display: inline; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11.11111068725586px; line-height: 9.722221374511719px;">(Advocate)</span>Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-57253612281887270002013-03-24T22:25:00.000+05:302013-03-24T22:25:28.655+05:30An order to Maalik al-Ashtar--Governor of Egypt by Hazarat Ali (as)<br />
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These are the orders issued by the creature of Allah, Ali, the son Abu Taalib (a) to Maalik, the son of Ashtar when he appointed Maalik as the Governor of Egypt to collect Zakat there, to combat the enemies of Islam and Egypt, to work for the welfare of its people and to look after its prosperity.</div>
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I order you, Maalik, always to keep the fear of Allah in your mind, to give priority to His worship and to give preference to obeying His Commands over every other thing in life, to carefully and faithfully follow the commandments and interdictions as are given by the Holy Book and the traditions of the Holy Prophet (s) because the success of a man to attain happiness in this world and in the next depends upon these qualities, and a failure to achieve these attributes brings about total failure in both the worlds.</div>
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I order you to use your head, heart, hands and tongue to help the creatures of Allah because the Almighty Allah holds Himself responsible to help those who sincerely try their best to help Him. Allah has further ordered you to keep your desires under control, to keep yourself under restraint when extravagant and inordinate yearnings and cravings try to drive you towards vice and wickedness because usually your 'self' tries to incite and drag you towards infamy and damnation unless the Merciful Lord comes to your help.</div>
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Let it be known to you, Maalik, that I am sending you as a governor to a country which has seen many regimes before this. Some of them were benign, sympathetic and good, while others were tyrannical, oppressive and cruel. People will judge your regime as critically as you have studied the activities of other regimes and they will criticize you in the same way as you have censured or approved other rulers.</div>
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You must know that a good and virtuous man is known and recognized by the good that is said about him and the praise which Allah has destined him to receive from others. Therefore, make your mind the source and fountain-head of good thoughts, good intentions and good deeds. This can only be attained by keeping a strict control on your desires and yearnings, however much they may try to incite and coerce you. Remember that the best way to do justice to your inner self and to keep it out of harm is to restrain it from vice and from things which the 'self' inordinately and irrationally desires.</div>
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Maalik! You must create in your mind kindness, compassion and love for your subjects. Do not behave towards them as if you are a voracious and ravenous beast and as if your success lies in devouring them.</div>
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Remember, Maalik, that amongst your subjects there are two kinds of people: those who have the same religion as you have; they are brothers to you, and those who have religions other than that of yours, they are human beings like you. Men of either category suffer from the same weaknesses and disabilities that human beings are inclined to, they commit sins, indulge in vices either intentionally or foolishly and unintentionally without realizing the enormity of their deeds. Let your mercy and compassion come to their rescue and help in the same way and to the same extent that you expect Allah to show mercy and forgiveness to you.</div>
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Maalik! You must never forget that if you are a ruler over them than the caliph is the ruler over you and Allah is the Supreme Lord over the caliph. And the reality is that He has appointed you as the governor and tested you through the responsibility of this rulership over them.</div>
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Never think of raising yourself to such a false prestige that you can declare war against Allah because you cannot ward off His Wrath and you can never be free from the need of His Mercy and Compassion.</div>
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Do not feel ashamed to forgive and forget. Do not hurry over punishments and do not be pleased and do not be proud of your power to punish. Do not get angry and lose your temper quickly over the mistakes and failures of those over whom you rule. On the contrary, be patient and sympathetic with them. Anger and desire of vengeance are not going to be of much help to you in your administration. Never say to yourself, "I am their Lord, their ruler and all in all over them and that I must be obeyed submissively and humbly" because such a thought will unbalance your mind, will make you vain and arrogant, will weaken your faith in religion and will make you seek support of any power other than that of Allah . If you ever feel any pride or vanity on account of your sway and rule over your subjects then think of the supreme sway and rule of the Lord over the Universe, the extent of His creations, the supremacy of His Might and Glory, His Power to do things which you cannot even dream of doing and His control over you which is more dominating than that which you can ever achieve over anything around you. Such thoughts will cure your mental weakness, will keep you away from vanity and rebellion (against Allah), will reduce your arrogance and haughtiness and will take you back to the sanity which you had foolishly deserted.</div>
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Take care never to think of bringing yourself at par with Allah, never to think of matching your power with Him and contesting His Glory and ever to pretend that you possess might and power like Him because the Mighty Lord will always humble pitiless tyrants and will degrade all pretenders of His Power and Might. So far as your own affairs or those of your relatives and friends are concerned take care that you do not violate the duties laid down upon you by Allah and do not usurp the rights of mankind, be impartial and do justice to them because if you give up equity and justice then you will certainly be a tyrant and an oppressor. And whoever tyrannizes and oppresses the creatures of Allah, will earn enmity of Allah along with the hatred of those whom he has oppressed; and whoever earns the Wrath of Allah loses all chances of salvation and he has no excuse to offer on the Day of Judgement.</div>
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Every tyrant and oppressor is an enemy of Allah unless he repents and gives up oppression. Remember, Maalik! that there is nothing in this world more effective to turn His Blessings into His Wrath quicker than to insist upon oppression over His creatures because the Merciful Allah will always hear the prayers of those who have been oppressed and He will give no chance to oppressors. You must always appreciate and adopt a policy which is neither too severe nor too lenient, a policy which is based upon equity will be largely appreciated. Remember that the displeasure of common men, the have-nots and the depressed persons more overbalances than the approval of important persons, while the displeasure of a few big people will be excused by the Lord if the general public and the masses of your subjects are happy with you.</div>
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Remember, Maalik! that usually these big personages are mentally the scum of the human society, they are the people who will be the worst drag upon you during your moments of peace and happiness, and the least useful to you during your hours of need and adversity, they hate justice the most, they will keep on demanding more and more out of the State resources and will seldom be satisfied with what they receive and will never be obliged for the favour shown to them if their demands are justifiable refused, they will never accept any reasonable excuse or any rational argument and when the time changes, you will never find them staunch, faithful and loyal.</div>
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While the common men, the poor and apparently the less important section of your subjects are the pillars of Islam, they are the real assemblage of Muslims and the power and defensive force against the enemies of Islam. Keep your mind on their affairs, be more friendly with them and secure their trust and goodwill. But be careful in forming your contacts (whether with the most important persons or the commoners); keep such people away from you and think them to be the enemy of the State who are scandal-mongers and who try to find fault with others and carry on propaganda against them because everywhere people have weaknesses and failings and it is the duty of the government to overlook (minor) shortcomings. You must not try to go in search of those weaknesses which are hidden from you, leave them to Allah, and about those weaknesses which come to your notice, you must try to teach them how to overcome them. Try not to expose the weaknesses of the people and Allah will conceal your own weaknesses which you do not want anybody to know.</div>
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Do not give cause to the people to envy each other (man against man, tribe against tribe or one section of the society against the other). Try to alleviate and root out mutual distrust and enmity from amongst your subjects.</div>
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Be fair, impartial and just in your dealings with all, individually and collectively and be careful not to make your person, position and favours act as sources of malice. Do not let any such thing or such person come near to you who does not deserve your nearness and your favour. Never lower your dignity and prestige. Remember that backbiters and scandal-mongers belong to a mean and cunning group, though they pretend to be sincere advisers. Do not make haste to believe the news they bring and do not heed to their advice.</div>
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Do not accept the advice of misers, they will try their best to keep you away from acts of kindness and from doing good to others. They will make you frightened of poverty.</div>
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Similarly do not allow cowards to act as your advisers because they will make you timid in enforcing your orders, will scare you from handling important affairs boldly and will make your enterprises and invasions timid and timorous attempts. At the same time avoid greedy and covetous persons who would aspire to the position of acting as your counsellor because he will teach you how to exploit the community and how to oppress people to get their wealth. Remember that miserliness, cowardice and greed appear to be different wicked qualities but they all arise from the same evil mentality of having no faith and no trust in Allah. Your worst ministers will be the men who had been ministers to the despotic rulers before you and who had been a party o atrocities committed by them. Such persons should not be taken into your confidence and should not be trusted because they have aided sinners and have assisted tyrants and cruel rulers. In their stead you can comfortably find persons who are equally wise and learned but who have not developed sinful and criminal mentalities, who have neither helped the tyrants in their tyrannies nor have they assisted them to carry on their sinful deeds. Such persons will prove the least troublesome to you. They will be the most helpful. They will sincerely sympathise with you. If you take them in your confidence they will sever their connections with your opponents. Keep such people with you as your companions in your informal company as well as in official gatherings in audience. From amongst such honest and humane companions and ministers some would receive your fullest confidence and trust. They are those who can always speak out the bitter truth to you and unreservedly and without fear of your status, can refuse to assist you or associate with you in the deeds which Allah does not like His good creatures to commit. Select honest, truthful and pious people as your companions. Train them not to flatter you and not to seek your favour by false praises because flattery and false praises create vanity and conceit and they make a man lose sight of his real self and ignore his duties.</div>
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You should not treat good and bad people alike because in this way you will be discouraging good persons and at the same time emboldening the wicked to carry on their wickedness. Everyone should receive the treatment which his deeds make him deserve.</div>
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Try carefully to realize that a ruler can create goodwill in the minds of his subjects and can make them faithful and sincere to him only when he is kind and considerate to them, when he reduces their troubles, when he does not oppress them and when he never asks for things which are beyond their power. These are the principles which you should keep in mind and act upon. Let your attitude be such that they do not lose faith in you because a good faith on their part will reduce many troubles of administration and will relieve you of many worries and anxieties. And so far as your confidence and trust is concerned, let it rest with those people whom you have tested in difficulties and whom you have befriended, but you should always mistrust those people whom you have wronged or who have proved themselves undeserving, inefficient or unfaithful. Do not give up those practices and do not break those rules which good Muslims have evolved or introduced before you, which have created unity and amity among the various sections of the society and which have benefited the masses. Do not break them and do not introduce innovations because if you do away with those good rules and traditions, the reward of having introduced them will go to those who evolved them and the punishment of having despoiled them will be your lot.</div>
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You must know, Maalik, that the people over whom you rule are divided into classes and grades and the prosperity and welfare of each class of the society individually and collectively are so interdependent upon the well-being of the other classes that the whole set-up represents a closely woven net and reciprocal aspect. One class cannot exist peacefully, cannot live happily and cannot work without the support and good wishes of the other.</div>
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Amongst them there are the soldiers of the army of Allah who defend His cause, the next class is that of the secretaries of the State to whom duties of writing out and issuing special or general orders are assigned, the third group is of the judges and magistrates to administer justice, the fourth is of officers who maintain <span class="highlight" style="color: red; font-weight: bold;">law</span> and order and guard the peace and prosperity of the country. Then there are common men, the Muslims who pay the taxes levied by the government, and non-Muslims who pay the taxes levied by the government, and non-Muslims who pay tribute to the State (in lieu of taxes). Then comes the class of men who carry on various professions and trades and the last but not the least are the poor and the have-nots who are considered as the lowest class of the society. The Merciful Allah has fixed rights and duties of each one of them. They have been either mentioned in His Book or explained through the instructions of the Holy Prophet (s). A complete code of them is preserved with us. As far as the soldiers are concerned, they are by the commands of Allah a fortress and stronghold to guard and defend the subjects and the State. They are the ornaments of the ruler and the country. They provide power and protection to the religion. They propagate and preserve peace among mankind. In fact, they are the real guardians of peace and through them good internal administration can be maintained. The upkeep and maintenance of an army depends upon the taxes collected by the State out of which Allah has fixed for them a share. With this amount they provide for their requirements, maintain themselves and their arms in sound position to defend the religion and the cause of justice. The army and the common men (common citizens who pay taxes or tributes) are two important classes, but in a Welfare State their well-being cannot be guaranteed without proper functioning and preservation of the other classes, the judges and magistrates, the secretaries of the State and the officers of various departments who collect various revenues, maintain <span class="highlight" style="color: red; font-weight: bold;">law</span> and order as well as preserve peace and amity among the diverse classes of the society. They also guard the rights and privileges of the citizens and look to the performances of various duties by individuals and classes. And the prosperity of this whole set-up depends upon the traders and industrialists. They act as a medium between the consumers and the suppliers. They collect the requirements of the society. They exert to provide goods. They open up shops, markets and trading centres. Thus providing the consumers with their necessities, they relieve the citizens of the need of running after their requisites of life. Then comes the class of the poor and the disabled persons. It is absolutely necessary that they should be looked after, helped and well-provided for. The Merciful Allah has explained the ways and means of maintaining and providing for each of these classes. And everyone of this class has the right upon the ruler of the State that at least minimum necessities for its well-being and contented living are provided.</div>
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Remember, Maalik that Almighty Allah will not absolve any ruler from his obligations unless he sincerely tries his best to discharge his duties, invokes Allah to help him in their performance, remains steadfast and diligent on the path of truth and justice and bears all this whether the performance of these duties is congenial or hateful to him.</div>
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So far as the army is concerned its chief and commander should be a person who is most sincere and faithful to Allah, to the Holy Prophet (s) and to your Imam who is most pious, who is famous for his forbearance, clemency and gentleness, who is neither short-tempered nor does he get angry quickly, who sympathetically treats sincere excuses and accepts apologies, who is kind and compassionate with the weak, but severe against the strong and the powerful, who has no vindictiveness which might lead to violence or any inferiority complex or weak-mindedness which makes them helpless and dejected. To find and select such persons you should have contacts with pious and noble families with high ideals and exalted traditions, families well-known for their bravery and courage and generosity and magnanimity. They are the people who may be considered as sources of magnificence and sublimity of character and fountain-heads of piety and good deeds.</div>
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When you have found and selected such persons then keep an eye over them and watch them as parents watch their children so that you may find out if there appears any change in their behaviour. Treat them kindly and sympathetically. Do not grudge highest considerations to them (if they rightly deserve) and do not refuse small mercies. This kind of treatment will create reciprocal tendencies in them and they will trust you and will be faithful to you. Under the impression that you have paid enough attention to their major necessities and wants, do not close your eyes to their minor requirements and needs because small favours often bear better fruits though careful attention to major necessities is very important. Among the military officers those should receive your highest respect and consideration who pay most attention to the needs of the soldiers under their command who come forward to help the soldiers with their personal means and property so that the soldiers may lead a happy and contented life and may have full confidence of the future of their families and children.<br />If the soldiers are thus satisfied and are free from anxieties and care then they will bravely and wholeheartedly face the conflicts. Your constant attention towards the officers and soldiers will make them love you more and more. The thing which should most gladden the heart of a ruler is the fact that his State is being ruled on the principles of equity and justice and that his subjects love him. And your subjects will only love you when they have no grievance against you. Their sincerity and loyalty will be proved if they gather around you to support your government, when they accept your authority without considering it an unbearable burden on their heads and when they do not secretly wish your rule to come to an end. So let them have as many justifiable hopes in you as they can and fulfil as many as you reasonably can. Speak well of those who deserve your praise. Appreciate the good deeds done by them and let these good actions be known publicly.</div>
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The correct and timely publicity of noble actions and golden deeds creates more zeal in the minds of the brave and emboldens the cowards and the weaklings. You must know and realize the good deeds done by every single individual so that the credit of noble deeds done by one may not be given to another. Do not underestimate and underpay the good work done. Similarly do not overpay a work simply because it has been done by a very important person and do not let his position and prestige be the cause of overvaluation of the merit of his work and at the same time do not undervalue a great deed if it is done by a very ordinary person or a commoner. Let equity, justice and fairplay be your motto. When you are faced with problems which you cannot solve or with a difficult situation from which you cannot escape or when uncertain and doubtful circumstances confuse and perplex you, then turn to Allah and the Holy Prophet (s) because Allah has thus ordered those whom He wants to guide. </div>
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Haider Ajaz </div>
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(Advocate)</div>
Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-83510771206204598592013-03-19T08:31:00.001+05:302013-03-19T08:31:23.175+05:30Munqabat on Imam Zamana (as)<iframe frameborder="0" height="720" src="https://www.facebook.com/video/embed?video_id=229106953900956" width="1280"></iframe>Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-17106460883986616702013-03-04T01:09:00.000+05:302013-03-04T01:09:34.605+05:30Bail and Discretion<br />
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<span style="color: navy; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><strong style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The judiciary seems convinced that unless it intervenes proactively, even the slender respect for the law that exists now can be lost.</strong></span></div>
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<strong style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><em style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">The issue of bail is one of liberty, justice, public safety and burden of the public treasury, all of which insist that a developed jurisprudence of bail is integral to a socially sensitised judicial process.</em></strong></div>
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– Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer in the Gudikanti Narasimhulu case (1977)</div>
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<strong style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><em style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Society has a vital interest in grant or refusal of bail because every criminal offence is an offence against the state. The order… must reflect perfect balance between the conflicting interests, namely, sanctity of individual liberty and the interest of the society.</em></strong></div>
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– Justice Dalveer Bhandari in S.S. Mhetre vs State of Maharashtra (2010)</div>
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THESE are especially harrowing times for those arraigned before courts for suspected crime. The judiciary has shown itself to be extremely tough, causing a lot of heart burning among those habitually deviant. A vast majority of Indians welcome this, because far too many criminals have been getting away with murder literally, because of either poor police investigation or the capacity of the accused to buy up or intimidate witnesses during a trial.</div>
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In a few States, ruling parties have been complicit in such misdeeds. On occasion, lack of integrity among trial court judges has also been a problem. The Supreme Court and High Courts seem more than convinced now that unless they intervened proactively, things could go out of control, and even the slender respect for the law that we see often could totally snap. This is why the higher judiciary has shown itself to be aggressive and has sent a decisive signal down its hierarchy that it will not brook inconsistent rulings or unjustified lenience towards those suspected of or charge sheeted for crime.</div>
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The subordinate judiciary has been quick to respond with some unusual rigour in dealing with criminal matters brought before it. Substantial terms of imprisonment by trial courts and their ready endorsement by appellate courts mark a distinct trend that shows the Indian judiciary in good light. A lenient sentence of six months to a molester and a rash and negligent automobile driver who has killed several on the road could be things of the past. This decisive change of stance towards offenders should have a positive fallout by way of deterring potential offenders. Victims of crime should in particular be happy, especially those who have seen aggressors going scot-free right before their eyes.</div>
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There is, however, a flip side to the new phenomenon. There is an unexpressed feeling among some that the judiciary is possibly too harsh and insensitive. The enormous adulation that the judiciary has received from the media is cited by them as a distraction that needs a cautious and balanced response while giving rulings in the future. Those who plead for such a corrective are in a woefully small minority. They, however, cannot be ignored if India is to be regarded as a civilised nation, one that is characterised by mercy and poise. Any criticism of the judiciary is not exactly a popular line to plug at a time when the whole nation is in a rage over successive scams and people in high places making unbelievable quantities of money at the cost of the taxpayer. Somebody has to bring to the notice of the judiciary that there is a school of thought in the country that stands for moderation, even if it means undeserved lenience to those guilty or suspected of crime.</div>
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Something that is germane to the debate on perceived distortions in judicial approach to the current venality in the country is the amount of discretion enjoyed by the courts while responding to petitions for bail. The press is lapping up recent events with great relish to the point of being cruel to those locked up as a result of stern judicial orders. Not a word of dissent or disapproval of court orders has been heard, something that would have revealed a certain logical evaluation of such orders. This is a disturbing turn of events that needs introspection.</div>
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The current law on the subject of bail as incorporated in the Criminal Procedure Court (CrPC) gives courts a wide discretion in respect of those held in judicial custody or who apprehend custody. A chronology of decisions since the beginning of the Republic in 1950 is revealing. The pendulum has swung from the lax and liberal approach to bail requests to the somewhat harsh regimen now. This should send shivers down the spine of many in public life who, until the other day, took the judiciary lightly to the point of being furtively sarcastic and disrespectful. It is an entirely different matter that some members of the judiciary themselves have given quarter to such irreverence towards them. The current Chief Justice of India, S.H. Kapadia, has done enough to drive home the message that he is no respecter of personalities and that he will come down heavily on anyone straying from the path of virtue, even if he or she belongs to the judiciary.</div>
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One of the earliest pronouncements on the philosophy that should guide judges while disposing of bail applications was by Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer. His plea for a concern for fundamental rights, especially the right to individual freedom, which needed to be blended with protection of public safety, set the tone for judgments for several decades to come.</div>
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It was the accepted proposition that as long as an applicant for bail posed no threat to the lives and property of others, he deserved a lot of consideration. Combined with this was the need for an undertaking that he or she would in no way tinker with the processes of law, such as destruction of vital evidence that may not have come to the notice of the police or prosecution or intimidation of those who were expected to depose before the court during the trial. If this criterion was fulfilled to the satisfaction of the court, it invariably granted bail.</div>
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Of course, such an order came with a few restraints on the accused, and a prescription that he or she should appear before the police at prescribed intervals of time. Once the trial began, the accused was required to attend every hearing without fail, unless there were convincing reasons for absence on a particular day. Such a bail application was made invariably after the accused had been arrested or charge-sheeted. The implication was that none could move the court on mere apprehension of arrest. Then came the concept of “anticipatory bail” in the form of Section 438 in the new CrPC of 1973. The objective was to take care of situations in which an individual feared being taken into custody by the police in response to a frivolous complaint by a vengeful adversary. This was a welcome relief to those who had suffered shame and ignominy at the hands of unscrupulous members of society.</div>
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Voluminous case law has been built around the theory making anticipatory bail a weighty concept that courts could use with great care to protect innocent individuals. Distressingly, however, some judges began diluting the benefit of Section 438 by making it mandatory for hapless applicants to subject themselves to periodic appearances at police stations or courts. There was also a stipulation by some courts that an anticipatory bail would cease the moment a charge sheet was filed in a case. This possibly curtails the freedom of an individual, which was not contemplated by the lawmakers.</div>
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The whole subject came up for a review by the Supreme Court in the Sibbia case (1980) when the court said: “Judges have to decide cases as they come before them, mindful of the need to keep passions and prejudices out of their decisions. And it will be strange if… we cut down the discretion so wisely conferred, by devising a formula which will confine the power to grant anticipatory bail within a straitjacket.”</div>
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The Sibbia ruling implied that judges need not feel fettered by narrow concerns and that they should interpret the law liberally so that no innocent person is denied what is due in the form of an anticipatory bail. This was the line of argument by the defence counsel in arguing for anticipatory bail of a Congressman, S.S. Mhetre, who was accused of involvement in a murder in 2009 and whose plea for anticipatory bail was turned down by the Bombay High Court.</div>
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In allowing the appeal, the Supreme Court (Justices Dalveer Bhandari and K.P. Radhakrishnan) went largely by the Sibbia ruling and said that any limitation on the validity of an anticipatory bail was not envisaged by the legislature. At the same time, the Mhetre judgment laid down that the discretion vested in the court should be exercised with great care and circumspection.</div>
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All recent court rulings on bail generally should be viewed against the backdrop of the Mhetre ruling. The courts have enormous discretion in granting or refusing bail. It is this discretion that possibly explains the varying standards applied in considering bail applications.</div>
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The point is whether differing perceptions have a deleterious impact on justice. It is difficult to assess the impact because of the hugely varied circumstances that surround each case. This is why we need a clinical study by legal scholars on how bail applications are disposed of and whether discretion is exercised by courts under pressure from the media and a demanding public.</div>
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Regards to:-</div>
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<span style="text-align: start;">R.K. RAGHAVAN</span></div>
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<span style="text-align: start;">Thanks,</span></div>
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<span style="text-align: start;">Haider Ajaz</span></div>
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<span style="text-align: start;">(Advocate)</span></div>
Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-6724743289714867862013-02-09T16:50:00.004+05:302013-02-09T16:50:55.666+05:30WHAT IS SUFFICIENT CAUSE ?<br />
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Justice A. Ananda of Karnataka High Court in the case of Smt K M Sharmila Umesh vs Smt Maryamma observed as follows:- “In the decision of (Parimal vs Veena @ Bharti) reported in (2011) 3 SCC 545, at paragraph 13, the Supreme Court has held as under: "Sufficient cause" is an expression which has been used in a large number of statutes. The meaning of the word "sufficient" is "adequate" or "enough", inasmuch as may be necessary to answer the purpose intended. Therefore, word "sufficient" embraces no more than that which provides a platitutde which when the act done suffices to accomplish the purpose intended in the facts and circumstances existing in a case and duly examined from the viewpoint of a reasonable standard of a cautious man. In this context, "sufficient cause" means that the party had not acted in a negligent manner or there was a want of bona fide on its part in view of the facts and circumstances of a case or the party cannot be alleged to have been "not acting diligently" or "remaining inactive". However, the facts and circumstances of each case must afford sufficient ground to enable the court concerned to exercise discretion for the reason that whenever the court exercises discretion, it has to be exercised judiciously. (Vide Ramlal v. Rewa Coalfields Ltd. AIR 1962 SC 361; , Lonand Grampanchayat v. Ramgiri Gosavi AIR 1968 SC 222; Surinder Singh Sibia v. Vijay Kumar Sood AIR 1992 SC 1540; and Oriental Aroma Chemical Industries Ltd., v. Gujarat Industrial Development Corpn. (2010) 5 SCC 459). In the aforestated judgment, the Supreme Court has held the facts and circumstances of each case must afford sufficient ground to enable the Court concerned to exercise discretion for the reason that whenever the Court exercises discretion, it has to be exercised judiciously.</div>
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Haider Ajaz</div>
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(Advocate)</div>
Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-48595201247770971802013-02-05T10:57:00.000+05:302013-02-05T10:57:24.939+05:3020th Law Commission<br />
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">Justice D. K. Jain, Judge, Supreme Court of India, will be the Chairman of the Twentieth Law Commission of India. According to the Notification issued here today, the appointment of Justice Jain will be effective from any day after 24th January 2013 on his retirement from the Supreme Court.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">The Twentieth Law Commission was constituted through a Government Order with effect from 1st September, 2012. It has a three-year term ending on 31st August, 2015. The Terms of Reference of the Twentieth Law Commission include the following:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">A. Review/Repeal of obsolete laws: i). Identify laws which are no longer needed or relevant and can be immediately repealed; Ii) Identify laws which are not in harmony with the existing climate of economic liberalization and need change; iii) Identify laws which otherwise require changes or amendments and to make suggestions for their amendment; iv) Consider in a wider perspective the suggestions for revision/ amendment given by Expert Groups in various Ministries/Departments with a view to coordinating and harmonizing them; v) Consider references made to it by Ministries/ Departments in respect of legislation having bearing on the working of more than one Ministry/Department; vi) Suggest suitable measures for quick redressal of citizens grievances, in the field of law.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">B. Law and Poverty: i) Examine the Laws which affect the poor and carry out post-audit for socio-economic legislations; ii) Take all such measures as may be necessary to harness law and the legal process in the service of the poor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">C. Keep under review the system of judicial administration to ensure that it is responsive to the reasonable demands of the times and in particular to secure: i) Elimination of delays, speedy clearance of arrears and reduction in costs so as to secure quick and economical disposal of cases without affecting the cardinal principle that decision should be just and fair; ii) Simplification of procedure to reduce and eliminate technicalities and devices for delay so that it operates not as an end in itself but as a means of achieving justice; iii) Improvement of standards of all concerned with the administration of justice.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">D. Examine the existing laws in the light of Directive Principles of State Policy and to suggest ways of improvement and reform and also to suggest such legislations as might be necessary to implement the Directive Principles and to attain the objectives set out in the Preamble to the Constitution.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">E. Examine the existing laws with a view for promoting gender equality and suggesting amendments thereto.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">F. Revise the Central Acts of general importance so as to simplify them and to remove anomalies, ambiguities and inequities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">G. Recommend to the Government measure for making the statute book up-to-date by repealing obsolete laws and enactments or parts thereof which have outlived their utility.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">H. Consider and to convey to the Government its views on any subject relating to law and judicial administration that may be specifically referred to it by the Government through Ministry of Law and Justice.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">Source: Lawyers Club India</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">Haider Ajaz </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">(Advocate)</span></div>
Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-79753484279811345252013-02-04T22:26:00.000+05:302013-02-04T22:26:04.036+05:30PERSON WHO PUBLISHED PORN – DOES NOT ENTITLED TO BE RELEASED ON PROBATION<br />
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<span style="font-size: 16pt;">In the case of Gita Ram & Anr vs State
Of </span><st1:state style="font-size: 16pt;" w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">H.P.</st1:place></st1:state></div>
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<span style="font-size: 16pt;">JUSTICE P. Sathasivam, and JUSTICE Jagdish
Singh Khehar of Supreme Court of India Decided on 1 February, 2013 approved the
observations of P & H High court and after considering the nature of the
activities and the offence committed by the appellants, refused to show any
leniency and to modify the sentence any further. “A similar view was taken by
Punjab and Haryana High Court in the case of Bharat Bhushan vs. State of Punjab
reported in 1999 (2) RCR (Criminal) 148 refusing to give benefit of probation
for exhibiting blue film punishable under Sections 292 and 293 of the IPC. The
Court held that: “exhibiting blue film in which man and woman were shown in the
act of sexual intercourse to young boys would definitely deprave and corrupt
their morals. Their minds are impressionable. On their impressionable minds
anything can be imprinted. Things would have been different if that blue film
had been exhibited to mature minds. Showing a man and a woman in the act of sexual
intercourse tends to appealing to the carnal side of the human nature.
Petitioner is the first offender and is a petty shopkeeper, maintaining a
family and as such the High Court feel that he should be dealt with leniently
in the matter of sentence. He cannot be released on probation of good conduct
as the act imputed to him tended to corrupt and deprave the minds of immature
and adolescent boys.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 16pt;">Haider Ajaz<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 16pt;">(Advocate)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9175824131530951491.post-17964431229745725322013-01-31T00:18:00.000+05:302013-01-31T00:18:15.742+05:30Article 20 (3) Of Constitution of India And Narco Analysis<br />
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<strong style="line-height: 16px;">Article 20 (3) Of Constitution of India And Narco Analysis</strong></div>
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In any criminal investigation, interrogation of the suspects and accused plays a vital role in extracting the truth from them. From time, immemorial several methods, most of which were based on some form of torture have been used by the investigating agencies to elicit information from the accused and the suspects. With the advancement of science and technology, sophisticated methods of lie detection have been developed which do away with the use of “third degree torture” by the police. The scientific tools of interrogation namely- the Lie detector or the Polygraph test, the P300 or the Brain Mapping test and the Narcoanalysis or the Truth Serum test are the main three tests that have recently been developed for extracting confessions. These psychoanalytical tests are also used to interpret the behaviour of the criminal (or the suspect) and corroborate the investigating officers’ observations.</div>
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However, legal questions are raised about the validity of tests like Narco Analysis, with some upholding its validity in the light of legal principles and others rejecting it as a blatant violation of constitutional provisions. It has been alleged that Narco Analysis is a blatant violation of the Article 20(3) of the Indian Constitution. However, in this age of ever increasing crime rate, such tests often render a lot of help to the investigation agencies and hence, it is high time to blend Article 20 (3) with the Narco Analysis.</div>
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First, let us understand what Narco Analysis is and how is it conducted. This will help us to decide whether such tests actually violate Article 20 (3). In India at Forensic Science Laboratories in Bangalore and Gujarat, Narco Analysis is conducted by injecting 3 grams of sodium pentothal dissolved in 300 ml of distilled water and this prepared solution is administered intravenously along with dextrose over a period of 3 hours with the help of anaesthetist. Obviously this test has some invasion on the body. The rate of administration is so controlled to drive the suspect slowly into the state of hypnotic trance. The ECG and blood pressure are monitored continuously throughout the testing procedure. The revelations made during the hypnotic trance are recorded both in video and audio cassettes. The questions are designed carefully and are repeated persistently in order the ambiguities during drum interrogation. The report prepared by the experts is useful in the process of collecting the evidence. A person is able to lie by using his imagination. In the Narco Analysis Test, the subject enters into a “twilight” stage i.e. a stage between consciousness and unconsciousness. In this state, it becomes difficult for him to lie and his answers would be restricted to facts he is already aware of. Prior to the test, Court’s permission and written consent of subject is secured which are mandatory for conducting the test. The procedure is explained to the subjects. The test is conducted only in the presence of forensic and medical experts.</div>
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<em style="line-height: 16px;"><strong>Next, it becomes imperative to analyse Article 20 (3) of the Indian Constitution. Clause (3) of Article 20 declares that no person accused of an offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself. This provision may be stated to consist of the following three components:</strong></em></div>
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1. it is a right pertaining to a person accused of an offence2. it is a protection against compulsion to be a witness; and 3. it is a protection against such compulsion resulting in his giving evidence against himself.</div>
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The privilege under clause (3) is confined only to an accused i.e. a person against whom a formal accusation relating to the commission of an offence has been levelled which is in the normal course may result in the prosecution. A person against whom a first information report has been recorded by the police and investigation has been ordered by the Magistrate can claim the benefit of the protection. Further, the guarantee in Article 20 (3) is against the compulsion to be ‘a witness’. In State of Bombay v. Kathi Kalu Oghad a Bench of the Supreme Court consisting of eleven judges held that: “It is well established that clause (3) of Article 20 is directed against self-incrimination by the accused person. Self-incrimination must mean conveying information based upon personal knowledge of the person giving the information and cannot include merely the mechanical process of producing documents in court which may throw a light on any of the points in the controversy, but which do not contain any statement of the accused based on his personal knowledge.” The third component of Article 20 (3) is that it is a prohibition only against the compulsion of the accused to give evidence against himself. In Kalawati v H.P. State , the Supreme Court held that Article 20 (3) does not apply at all to a case where the confession is made by an accused without any inducement, threat or promise.</div>
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Narco Analysis in the light of Article 20(3): The discussion on Article 20 (3) spells out three requirements which must be met with in order to claim protection under Article 20 (3). If any of these requirements is not met with, Article 20 (3) cannot be invoked. If Narco Analysis is carried out on an accused, it definitely fulfils the first requirement of Article 20 (3). However, the question is whether subjecting a suspect to such a test also fulfils the requirement of Article 20 (3). In the case of State of Andhra Pradesh v. Smt. Inapuri Padma and Ors , the Court by ordering a few suspects to undergo a Narco Analysis test held that the question of putting the test of testimonial compulsion in case of suspects does not arise.</div>
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Hence, I feel that if a person is suspected to have some information regarding the commission of an offence, there should be no prohibition on conducting a Narco Analysis test on him as the protection under Article 20 (3) is available only to a person accused of an offece. Another requirement of Article 20 (3) is that there should be no compulsion on the accused to give testimony against him. However, in Narco Analysis test, the question of compulsion does not arise because the prior consent of the person who is supposed to undergo such a test is always taken. In fact, the Supreme Court in State of Bombay v Kathi Kalu Oghad, held that there is no compulsion when a police officer, in investigating a crime against, a certain individual, asks him to do a certain thing. The fact that a person was in police custody when he made the statement is not a foundation for an inference that he was compelled to make the statement. The mere questioning of an accused by a police officer, resulting in a voluntary statement, which may ultimately turn out to be incriminatory, is not compulsion. Considering, all these we can easily conclude that Narco Analysis does not violate Article 20 (3) to the extent that the person undergoing such a test is not compelled to do so, rather it is done with the consent of the person who has full knowledge of such a test.</div>
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The third requirement of Article 20 (3) is that the there should be compulsion to give evidence against oneself. Only incriminatory statements are hit by Article 20(3). Whether a statement is incriminatory or not can be ascertained only after the test is conducted and not before it. Hence, I do not see any reason to prohibit such a test because there are enough protections available under the Indian Evidence Act, under Criminal Procedure Code and Article 20(3), to prevent inclusion of any incriminating statement if one comes out after administration of the test. By conducting Nacrco Analysis, the investigating agencies might discover some information which will help them in the investigation of the crime and thus find out the true culprit. In case, during the test, the accused makes a statement that is incriminatory that need not be made admissible in the Court as it is against Article 20 (3), but the rest of the information can definitely be used by the investigating agencies to solve the case. The above discussion very clearly suggests that Narco Analysis test can be conducted without violating Article 20 (3).</div>
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The Indian Courts have so far refused to admit the Narco Analysis as evidence, but Narco Analysis is being carried out by the investigators. The reason is that although confession made to the police or in the presence of police is not admissible in Courts, the information is admissible by which an instrument or object used in commission of crime is discovered. This is clear from the wording of Section 27 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872. Section 27 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872 is founded on the principle that if the confession of the accused is supported by the discovery of a fact, the confession may be presumed to be true, and not to have been extracted. It comes into operation only: (i) if and when certain facts are deposed to as discovered in consequence of information received from an accused person in police custody; and (ii) if the information relates distinctly to the fact discovered. If the self incriminatory information given by an accused person is without any threat that will be admissible in evidence and will not be hit by Article 20 (3).</div>
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Section 156 (1) of the Code of Criminal Procedure which reads “Police officer's power to investigate cognizable cases” states that any officer in charge of a police station without the order of a Magistrate can investigate any cognizable case which a Court has power to inquire into or try under the provisions of Chapter XIII. “Investigation” as defined in Section 2 (h) of Cr.P.C includes all the proceedings under the Code of Criminal Procedure for the collection of evidence conducted by a Police Officer or by any person (other than a Magistrate) who is authorised by a Magistrate in that behalf. Thus, collection of evidence by Police Officer is permitted under law. Conducting Narcoanalysis Test on accused is in the process of such evidence by the investigating agency. The Karnataka High Court also made a similar observation in the case of Smt. Selvi and Ors v. State by Koramangala Police Station. This provision is also constitutionally valid.</div>
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Let us now understand the approach of the judiciary towards Narco Analysis. In the unreported case of Ramchandra Ram Reddy v The State of Maharashtra, the Court posed with the question whether P-300, Lie Detector and Narco Analysis tests are violative of Article 20(3) observed:</div>
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“The question which falls for consideration therefore, is whether such statement can be forcibly taken from the accused by requiring him to undergo the Truth Serum Test against his will. It will be seen that such statement will attract the bar of Article 20(3) only if it is inculpating or incriminating the person making it. Whether it is so or not can be ascertained only after the test is administered and not before. In our opinion therefore, there is no reason to prevent administration of this test also because there are enough protections available under the Indian Evidence Act, under Criminal Procedure Code and under the Constitution (Article 20(3), to prevent inclusion of any incriminating statement if one comes out after administration of the test………… In so far as the third test (Narco Analysis) is concerned enough protection exists, recourse to which can be taken if and when the investigating agency seeks to introduce such statement as evidence.”</div>
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The Court dismissed the petitions filed against these tests and held that these tests do not compel the accused or witness to incriminate himself and there is therefore no question of violation of Article 20(3) of the Constitution.</div>
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In Smt. Selvi and Ors v. State by Koramangala Police Station , the Court observed that the field of criminology has expanded rapidly during the last few years, and the demand for supplemental methods of detecting deception and improving the efficiency of interrogation have increased concomitantly. Narco analysis for criminal interrogation is a valuable technique, which would profoundly affect both the innocent and the guilty and thereby hasten the cause of justice. Further observed that enough protections exist to which recourse can be had by accused if and when the investigating agency seeks to introduce into evidence the information or statement obtained under Narco-analysis Test, if the same is found inculpatory or confession. That apart, statement or information by accused in the said test may even show their innocence or may lead to discovery of a fact or object material in the crime. If so, it is not at all hit by Article 20(3).</div>
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In the case of Rojo George v. Deputy Superentendent of Police , the Court while allowing a Narco Analysis test observed that in present days the techniques used by the criminals for commission of crime are very sophisticated and modern. The conventional method of questioning may not yield any result at all. That is why the scientific tests like polygraph, brain mapping, narco analysis, etc. are now used in the investigation of a case. When such tests are conducted under strict supervision of the expert, it cannot be said that there is any violation of the fundamental rights guaranteed to a citizen of India.</div>
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In Santokben Sharmanbhai Jadeja v. State of Gujarat , the Court while upholding the order for conducting a Narco Analysis on the accused Santokben Sharmanbhai Jadeja, observed that “when after exhausting all the possible alternatives to find out the truth and nab the criminal/accused and when it is found by the prosecuting agency that there is no further headway in the investigation and they are absolutely in dark, there is a necessity of such a test. On the basis of revelations and/or the statement recorded while conducting/performing the Narco Analysis Test, prosecuting agency may have some clues which would further help and/or assist the Investigating Agency to further investigate the crime and at this stage, there will not be any bar of Article 20(3) of the Constitution of India and merely conducting/performing of a Narco Analysis Test on the accused, the protection guaranteed under Article 20(3) of the Constitution of India is not violated. As stated above, only and only at the stage when the prosecuting agency is likely to use such statement as evidence and if it is inculpating and incriminating the person making it, it will attract the bar of Article 20(3).” The Court further observed that various provisions under the Criminal Procedure Code right from Sections 156 to 159 and other related provisions, collection of evidence by the police officer is permitted under the Law. Conducting the Nsrco Analysis test on accused is to be considered as process of collection of such evidence by the Investigating Agency. The Investigating Agency cannot be prevented to interrogate the accused at the stage of investigation and restraining the Investigating Agency to further investigate the crime through the aforesaid two tests would tantamount to interfere with the right of the Investigating Agency to investigate the crime of which it is statutorily authorized.</div>
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In Dinesh Dalmia v State , the Court observed that where the accused had not allegedly come forward with the truth, the scientific tests are resorted to by the investigation agency. Such a course does not amount to testimonial compulsion. From the above discussion, it is very evident that conducting a Narco Analysis test does not violate Article 20 (3) per se. Only after conducting the test, if the accused divulges information which is incriminatory, then it will be hit by Article 20(3). Other information divulged during the test can help the investigation. Thus, there is no reason why we should prohibit such a test on grounds of unconstitutionality.</div>
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In fact, the revelations made during the Narco analysis have been found to be of very useful in solving sensational cases of Mumbai serial train blasts, blasts at Delhi, Malegoan and more recently in Hyderabad and in various other sensational cases of National and International ramifications. In most of these cases, the revelations made have led to the discovery of incriminating information’s favouring probative truth and consequently recoveries have been made in large number of cases U/s 27 of IEA. Thus, Narco Analysis is proving to be a useful tool in the field of criminal investigation. However, the legal hurdles in use of this technique should be removed first before its application. It is high time that we blend this test with Article 20(3) in such a manner that no questions are raised as to its constitutional validity. For this purpose, it is essential that the Union Government should come out with certain guidelines which are to be strictly followed while conduction such a test.</div>
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1. The permission of the Court and the written consent of the person undergoing such a test should be made compulsorily. 2. The person who is supposed to undergo such a test must be given all the necessary details about the test before he is asked to sign the consent form. 3. Control and supervision of the forensic laboratories should be made under the autonomous bodies like NHRC and the States Human Rights Commissions.4. NHRC has suggested that at the time of polygraph test a forensic psychologist, a psychiatrist and an anaesthetist should remain present. Similar team can be directed to remain present at the time of Narco Analysis with the additional safeguard of entire proceeding audio and videotaped</div>
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<strong style="line-height: 16px;"><em>In conclusion, I would like to quote, Dr. R.E. House’s address to the First Annual Meeting of the Eastern Society of Anaesthetists in 1925 about the role of his scopolamine tests:</em></strong>" ... Society has the right to be protected against the criminal, and all of society's rights are manifestly superior to those of the criminal. There can be no gainsaying the fact that a suspect is either innocent or guilty, and no one knows the truth better than does the suspect himself. It, therefore, stands to reason, that where there is a safe and humane measure existing to evoke the truth from the consciousness of the suspect, that society is entitled to have the truth........... If society has the right to take property, liberty, and life for its protection, then society has the right to make, by trained men, the use of truth serum legal. The framers of the Bill of Rights believed the rights of society were paramount to the rights of the criminal. It was an instrument for the protection of the innocent and not intended for the acquittal of the guilty".</div>
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Haider Ajaz </div>
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(Advocate)</div>
Adv Haider Ajazhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10091033994457578506noreply@blogger.com0